Vortigern ap Gwidol
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Gwrtheyrn ap Gwidol (abt. 395 - abt. 459)

Gwrtheyrn (Vortigern) "Guorthenau" ap Gwidol
Born about [location unknown]
Ancestors ancestors
Brother of
Husband of — married [date unknown] [location unknown]
Descendants descendants
Died about at about age 64 [location unknown]
Profile last modified | Created 30 Aug 2017
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Space: Vortigern's Descendants Space: Legendary Descendants of Vortigern

Contents

Biography

Leader of Britons

This is the profile for the leader of the Britons who bridged the period between the withdrawal of Roman Legions from Britain in the year 410, and the initial conquests of territory by Saxon and related invaders.

Gildas, the earliest source gives no name to this person; later sources name him Vortigern.

Doug Straiton states, "I believe all scholars believe a person existed. The debate tends towards his achievements and the fact that Vortigern is also a title (Overlord or High King), thus giving rise to potential duplication." [1]

Wikipedia asserts that "Vortigern was possibly a 5th-century warlord in Britain, known perhaps as a king of the Britons. His existence is contested, and information about him is obscure." [2]

395 Birth Year Estimation

Estimating Vortigern's birth as, say, 395, would make him aged 15 when the Romans left in 410. This would give him time to become a leader of post-Roman Britain. The Hengist narrative gives the year 449 as Hengist's arrival year. If born in 395, Vortigern would have been 54 that year, allowing time for the subsequent events before his death.

410 Roman Withdrawal

During this time period Latin was used as the language of government but a main language of the people was Brythonic and the people were Britons.

410 Roman Withdrawal

In 410 the Roman Legions were withdrawn from Britain to defend the center of the Empire, and Britain was left on its own. For a while, however, the Romano-British of the cities and the tribal capitals sought to maintain the political structures they had inherited from Rome. [3]

It is likely that during the years 420 to 450 Vortigern (the Gwrtheyrn of the Welsh tradition) held authority over much of the former Roman province. [3]

Tradition suggests that he used the Roman method of using one invader against another. Thus, he may have arranged for some of the Votadini or Gododdin (the Brythonic-speaking people living on the banks of the Firth of Fourth) to settle in north-west Wales to resist the incursions of the Irish. [3]

He allowed Saxons to settle in exchange for their help against the invasions of the Picts. [3]

Population Movements

The arrival of Saxons and others resulted in the concentration of Brythonic speaking people in western England where it became known as Welsh. The word "Welsh" is generally thought to have an origin in Volcae, a Gallic tribe of the Caesar Julius period, likely pushed out of Gaul into Brittany and then to Britain, displacing the Pictish tribes of origin and pushing them north. When the Saxons arrived they used the term Volca to mean anyone not speaking their language, actually translated it means Roman speaker. In the Saxon language/dialect used in Saxon Britain this would have sounded like walha; thus Welsh.[1]

Name and Family

Name

Variations in how his name appears reflect variations in language [4]

  • Guorthigirn, Guorthegern (Old Welsh);
  • Gwrtheyrn (Welsh);
  • Wyrtgeorn (Old English);
  • Gurdiern, Gurthiern (Old Breton);
  • Foirtchern (Irish),
  • Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu, also known as Vortigern. [5]

Family

The earliest sources give no names of family members.

Battles with Saxons

Gildas, writing about 100 years after the fact, places the arrival of the Saxons around the year 449. [6]

500 Battle of Badon

The Saxons complained of insufficient supplies around 442 and mutinied, this eventually leading to the Battle of Badon in c.500. While Badon was seen as successful the Saxons had built a "Kingdom" around Sussex, Kent, East Anglia, Hampshire and part of Yorkshire. [1]

The map at Project Gutenberg provides a useful understanding of the disposition of Britons at the Battle of Badon. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg

540 Battle of Cattraeth

About the year 540, the fatal battle of Cattraeth was fought between the Britons and Saxons. The Britons were defeated with such slaughter that, out of 363 British chieftains, three only, of whom one was Aneurin, the son of Caw, Lord of Cwm Cawlyd, escaped with their lives. He was afterwards taken prisoner, loaded with chains, and thrown into a dungeon, from which he was released by Ceneu, the son of Llywarch Hen. The disastrous battle of Cattraeth caused the migration of numbers of Northern Britons to their kindred race in Wales, and Aneurin is said to have found a refuge at the famous college of Cattwg in South Wales ; where, about 570, he was treacherously slain by one Eiddin. [7]

Research Notes: Development of the Legends

The most recent sources question virtually everything believed about Vortigern. David Peate calls Vortigern an "historical nightmare" who could not have been in all the places and done all the things it is alleged he did. [5]

Sources will be presented here in chronological order to show how the legends developed:

  • Gildas: De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae by Gildas,
  • Bede: a few works by Bede (notably Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum where he mentions him as Vurtigernus and his Chronica Maiora where he appears as Vertigernus,
  • Nennius: works by Nennius later and
  • the Anglo Saxon Chronicles, in the main.

540 Gildas

Writing about 540 CE, (though some scholars believe it earlier) a century after the actual events, 6th century historian and monk Gildas is the first writer to mention the arrival of the Saxons. The work of his title describes his perspective: De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (On the Ruin and Conquest of Britain). It was written not as history but rather a sermon condemning the behavior of the Britons. [8]

The Wikipedia article notes that Gildas adds several small details suggesting that either Gildas or his source received at least part of the story from the Anglo-Saxons, for instance the description of their ships. [2] In addijtion, Gildas repeats a prophecy that the visiting Saxons were "foretold by a certain soothsayer among them, that they should occupy the country to which they were sailing three hundred years, and half of that time, a hundred and fifty years, should plunder and despoil the same." [9]Both of these details are unlikely to have been invented by a Roman or Celtic source. [2]

In Gildas' account:

  • The Saxons were invited to protect the British against the Picts and Scots. [10]
  • The king extending the invitation, along with his counsellors, is described as a "superbo tyranno" or "proud usurper." Most editions of Gildas do not name this king. [11] Two manuscripts name him: MS. A (Avranches MS 162, 12th century), refers to Uortigerno; and Mommsen's MS. X (Cambridge University Library MS. Ff. I.27) (13th century) calls him Gurthigerno.
  • The Saxons arrived in three ships "like wolves into the sheep-fold." [10]
  • The Saxons received monthly allotments, and when, having become too numerous, the British could no longer afford them, they revolted. [10]
  • Gildas notes that the "Britons" had five "rulers." Doug Straiton observes that these "Kings" are all the "Welsh" kings or at least West country Kings. [1]
  1. Constantine of Dumnonia (south west England today, about half of the later Kingdom of Wessex (capital Exeter), Constantine was the "High King." see DeBritain-9 and Dumnonia-1, b. 500
  2. Aurelius Conanus, but he doesn't say which part he rules but is particularly vociferous regarding his character. He may not have been the ruler. Gildas names him as the "lion's whelp" suggesting he was the son of the "lion". Gildas used the Book of Revelation, 13-2: the lion, leopard, bear, and dragon to name the rulers.
  3. Vortiporius, King of Dyfed, south west Wales.
  4. Cuneglasus, central and north east Wales
  5. Maelgwn Gwynedd, King of Gwynedd, north west Wales. [1] See Cadwallon-2 and Maelgwn-5, b. 475.
  • Gildas mentions the Battle of Badon (Latin: Mons Badonicus) but, unfortunately, doesn't mention who led the Britons. [1]
  • Gildas clearly states that these events occurred prior to the treaty being broken in 442. (If Gildas is correct and Vortigern did allocate land it must be presumed he was a noble of East Briton, not west, and that he flourished c. 420.) [1]

Wikipedia notes that Gildas does not appear to consider Vortigern as bad; just "unlucky" (infaustus) and lacking judgment. [2]

731 Bede

In about 731, Bede wrote the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.[12] Both Gildas and Bede wrote on behalf of the church and provide us our modern day view of Saxons as "the pagan Anglo-Saxons as God's scourge against the reprobate Britons" although Bede suggests opportunity where he provides "any rough treatment was necessary, and ordained by God, because the Britons had lost God's favour, and incurred his wrath" [1]

Bede's account of this period adds elements not found in Gildas:

  • Bede gives a date to the Saxon arrival -- the year 449 -- at the invitation of the British. This has been considered suspect since the late 20th century: "Marcian being made emperor with Valentinian, and the forty-sixth from Augustus, ruled the empire seven years." Michael Jones notes that there are several adventus dates in Bede. In H.E. 1.15 the adventus occurs within the period 449–55; in 1.23 and 5.23 another date, c. 446, is given; in 2.14 the same event is dated 446 or 447. [2]
  • Bede names Hengist and Horsa as the first commanders,naming their tribes as the Saxons, Angles and Jutes. [12](Duces fuisse perhibentur eorum primi duo fratres Hengist et Horsa).
  • Bede states tjat tje Saxons arrived in Britain at Ebbsfleet on the isle of Thanet. [4] However in a later section of the same work, Bede writes that Hengest was accompanied by his son Oesc when he initially arrived.[12] Hengist has a named father andson, and became first Anglo-Saxon King of Kent.
  • Bede names Vortigern, whom Gildas had simply named "tyrannis superbus," or "proud imposter." The Saxons were invited to Britain by Vortigern, named as King of the Britons, in 449.[1] Bede refers to Vortigern as Vertigernus and later as Vurtigernus.
  • Bede's is the first to recount "the Night of the Long Knives" in which the Saxons invited the British to a banquet and then killed all but Vortigern. Horsa was killed fighting the Britons, but Hengist successfully conquered Kent, becoming the first Anglo-Saxon King of Kent and the forefather of its kings.[4]
  • Bede dates the Battle of Badon to 44 years after the Saxon invasion or c. 495. This is generally associated with the Arthur legend and many suggest that Ambrosius Aurelianus was Arthur of legend. [1]

828 Nennius

Bede was a monk from Bangor, Gwynedd in Wales and until recently was regarded as the author of the Historia Brittonum (History of the Britons) which was compiled during the early 9th century. The writer mentions a great number of sources. "Nennius" wrote more negatively of Vortigern. [2]

Nennius' additions to the Vortigern legend:

  • Vortigern is accused of incest (a possible or perhaps intentional mistake of Vortigern for Vortipor, accused by Gildas of the same crime), as well as oath-breaking, treason, love for a pagan woman, and lesser vices such as pride. [2]
  • Chapter 66 gives important chronological calculations, mostly on Vortigern and the Adventus Saxonum. [2]
  • Rivalry between Vortigern and Ambrosius. Vortigern is said to have been sovereign of the Dimetae, and Ambrosius son to the king of the Damnonii. The latter was half a Roman by descent, and naturally supported the Roman

interest: the former was entirely a Briton, and as naturally seconded by the original Britons. [13] Nennius, III, 31 </ref> In the work by Ninnius (Historia Brittonum, Chapter 31) we are told that Vortigern and Ambrosius Aurelianus are contemporary and that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius Aurelianus. Modern scholars suggest that the text suggests that Vortigern feared him more than the Picts. As Chapter 31 precedes the intervention by the Saxons we can assume that Vortigern was more concerned with his war against the other Briton Kingdoms than against the Picts.

  • The three vessels were exiled from Germany.
  • Horsa and Hengist's ancestry is p;rovided. "They were commanded by Horsa and Hengist, brothers, and sons of Wihtgils. Wihtgils was the son of Witta; Witta of Wecta; Wecta of Woden; Woden of Frithowald; Frithowald of Frithuwulf; Frithuwulf of Finn; Finn of Godwulf; Godwulf of Geat, who, as they say, was the son of a god." [13]
  • A date was given to Horsa and Hengist's arrival -- "four hundred and forty seven years after the passion of Christ." The date is often shown as the year 447, but if the passon of Christ took place in the year 30, then Nennius' date would be 417, just 7 years after the departure of the Roman legions.
  • St. Germanus is introduced: sent by Pope St. Celestine during reign of Vortimer to restore Chrsianity. Material quoted from a Life of Saint Germanus. [2]
    • These excerpts describe Saint Germanus' incident with one Benlli, an inhospitable host seemingly unrelated to Vortigern, who comes to an untimely end, but his servant, Cadell, who provides hospitality, is made the progenitor of the kings of Powys and is known as Cadell Ddrnlwg. This must have occurred either in 447, or in 448, for in that latter year, Germanus left Britain with the Roman Legions and went to Ravenna, where he died July 25, 448. [7] Cadell had nine sons when he became King of Teymllwg. [7]
    • Vortigern's son by his own daughter, whom Germanus in the end raises;
    • and Vortigern's own end caused by fire brought from heaven by Germanus' prayers.
  • Marriage to Rowena, Hengist's daughter. Stories that explain why Vortigern granted land in Britain to the Saxons — first to Thanet, in exchange for service as foederati troops; then to the rest of Kent, in exchange for marriage to Hengest's daughter; then to Essex and Sussex,
  • Long Knives. A banquet where the Saxons treacherously slew all of the leaders of the British but saved Vortigern to extract this ransom. This is no more than an explanatory legend. No finds suggest the origin of Anglo-Saxon occupation in Thanet or Kent; Dorchester-on-Thames (Oxford) is a more likely candidate,[why?] as is East Anglia.[why?][2]
  • Ambrosius Aurelianus and the Two Dragons. The magical tale of Ambrosius Aurelianus and the two dragons found beneath Dinas Emrys. This origin of the later legend of Merlin is clearly a local tale that had attracted the names of Vortigern and Ambrosius to usurp the roles of earlier characters. While neither of them has any association with that remote part of Wales, the character Vortigern is best known to us because of this tale.[2]
  • A number of calculations attempting to fix the year Vortigern invited the Saxons into Britain. These are several calculations made by the writer, naming interesting names and calculating their dates, making several mistakes in the process.[2]
  • Vortigern's Ancestry and the names of his four sons (Vortimer, Pascent, Catigern, Faustus), a father (Vitalis), a grandfather (Vitalinus) and a great-grandfather who is probably just an eponym (Gloui) which associates Vortigern with Glevum, the civitas of Gloucester.[2]
  • Four battles in Kent, apparently related to material in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (see below). In the Historia Brittonum it is claimed that Vortigern's son Vortimer commanded the Britons against Hengest's Saxons. Moreover, it is claimed that the Saxons were driven out of Britain, only to return at Vortigern's re-invitation a few years later, after the death of Vortimer.[2]
  • The stories preserved in the Historia Brittonum reveal an attempt by one or more anonymous British scholars to provide more detail to this story, while struggling to accommodate the facts of the British tradition. This is important, as it indicates that either at the time, or near that time, there were one or more Welsh kings who traced their genealogy back to Vortigern.[2]
  • Chronology. Gratianus AEquantius at that time reigned in Rome. The Saxons were received by Vortigern four hundred and forty-seven years after the passion of Christ, and, according to the tradition of our ancestors, from the period of their first arrival in Britain, to the first year of the reign of king Edmund, five hundred and forty-two years; and to that in which we now write, which is the fifth of his reign, five hundred and forty-seven years." [14]
  • Isle of Thanet. In 447 AD, Vortigern received Hengist and Horsa "as friends" and gave to the brothers the Isle of Thanet. (p. 18 )[15]After the Saxons had lived on Thanet for "some time" Vortigern promised them supplies of clothing and other provisions on condition that they assist him in fighting the enemies of his country. As the Saxons increased in number the Britons became unable to keep their agreement, and so told them their assistance was no longer needed and they should go home. (p. 22) [15]
  • Rowena. Hengist had a beautiful daughter, who arrived in a group of 16 vessels, and so bewitched Vortigern that he exchanged Kent for her.[16] Vortigern allowed Hengist to send for more of his countrymen to come over to fight for him. Messengers were sent to "Scythia", where "a number" of warriors were selected, and, with sixteen ships, the messengers returned. With the men came Hengist's beautiful daughter. Hengist prepared a feast, inviting Vortigern, Vortigern's officers, and Ceretic, his translator. Prior to the feast, Hengist enjoined his daughter to serve the guests plenty of wine and ale so that they would become drunk. At the feast Vortigern became enamored with her and promised Hengist whatever he liked in exchange for her betrothal. Hengist, having "consulted with the Elders who attended him of the Angle race," demanded Kent. Without the knowledge of the then-ruler of Kent, Vortigern agreed. (p. 22-23). [15] Hengist's daughter was given to Vortigern, who slept with her and deeply loved her. Hengist told him that he would now be both his father and adviser and that he would know no defeat with his counsel, "for the people of my country are strong, warlike, and robust." [4]
  • With Vortigern's approval, Hengist would send for his son and his brother to fight against the Scots and those who dwelt near the wall. Vortigern agreed and Ochta and Ebissa arrived with 40 ships, sailed around the land of the Picts, conquered "many regions," and assaulted the Orkney Islands. [4] Hengist continued to send for more ships from his country, so that some islands where his people had previously dwelt are now free of inhabitants. (p. 23-24). [15]
  • Vortigern married his own daughter and had a son by her, incurring the wrath of Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre ) and thereupon going into hiding at the advice of his counsel. [4]
  • Vortigern turned on the Saxons and attacked them. Vortigern's son Vortimer engaged Hengist and Horsa and their men in battle, drove them back to Thanet and there enclosed them and beset them on the western flank. The war waxed and waned; the Saxons repeatedly gained ground and were repeatedly driven back.. (p. 29) [15] Vortimer attacked the Saxons four times: first enclosing the Saxons in Thanet, secondly fighting at the river Derwent, the third time at Epsford, where both Horsa and Vortigern's son Catigern died, and lastly "near the stone on the shore of the Gallic sea," where the Saxons were defeated and fled to their ships.[4]
  • The Feast of Long Knives. After a "short interval" Vortimer died and the Saxons became established, "assisted by foreign pagans." Hengist convened his forces and sent to Vortigern an offer of peace. Vortigern accepted, and Hengist prepared a feast to bring together the British and Saxon leaders. (p. 30-31) [15] However, he instructed his men to conceal knives beneath their feet. At the right moment, Hengist shouted nima der sexa (get your knives) and his men massacred the unsuspecting Britons. However, they spared Vortigern, who ransomed himself by giving the Saxons Essex, Sussex, Middlesex, and other unnamed districts.(p. 31-32). [15]
  • Germanus of Auxerre as British leader. Germanus of Auxerre was acclaimed as commander of the British forces. By praying, singing hallelujah and crying to God, the Saxons were driven to the sea. Germanus then prayed for three days and nights at Vortigern's castle and fire fell from heaven and engulfed the castle. [4]
  • Vortigern, Hengist's daughter, Vortigern's other wives, and all other inhabitants burned to death. Potential alternate fates for Vortigern are provided.(p. 33) [15] However, the Saxons continued to increase in numbers, and after Hengist died his son Ochta succeeded him.(p. 34) [15]
  • Conflict between Romans and Britons. "31. After the above-said war between the Britons and Romans, the assassination of their rulers, and the victory of Maximus, who slew Gratian, and the termination of the Roman power in Britain, they were in alarm forty years. Vortigern then reigned in Britain. In his time, the natives had cause of dread, not only from the inroads of the Scots and Picts, but also from the Romans, and their apprehensions of Ambrosius."[14]

Nennius makes mention of Vortigern's lineage in Chapter 49; online here: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/histbrit.html (in Latin). There are on line sources of varying quality; one here: *http://www.vortigernstudies.org.uk/artfam/gloiu.htm and *http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/nennius-full.asp, which are varyingly accurate.[1]

Ninnius has a passage which suggests that Vortigern was on the run from St Germanus, sometimes thought to be Germanus of Auxerre. It came about around 447. This visit by Germanus of Auxerre is questioned by historians, and he must have been over 70 at the time, but, I think, his prodigy Germanus of Normandy might have been there and is a better candidate for the story. [1]

Regardless, the history suggests that Vortigern fled from Germanus after trying to get his daughter to name Germanus as father to her child. Vortigern was cursed by Germanus and the council of Britons, and fled into Wales followed by Germanus and the clergy. [1]

He is said to have fled to Caer Guorthegirn (Fortress of Vortigern) which is above the river Wye. Nennius describes it as being located in the region of Gueneri or Guenessi. [1]

According to Ninnius, and the placement of the passage in the text - immediately after the lineage, suggests this is where he died, "fire fell from heaven consuming the castle, the guilty king, and his company" (according to the History of the Welsh Church). [1]

850 Pillar of Eliseg

The inscription on the Pillar of Eliseg, a mid-9th century stone cross in North Wales, gives the Old Welsh spelling of Vortigern: Guarthi[gern] (the inscription is now damaged and the final letters of the name are missing), believed to be the same person as Gildas' "superbus tyrannus", Vortigern. The pillar also states that he was married to Sevira, the daughter of Magnus Maximus, and gave a line of descent leading to the royal family of Powys, who erected the cross.[2]

We find from the inscription on the shaft of the Cross erected to the memory of his great grandfather, King Eliseg, who died in the year 773, by his great grandson, King Cyngen II, that Vortigern married Scveira, the daughter of the Emperor Maximus, who slew the Emperor Gratian. [7]

Vortigern was alleged by Peate to have married first an unknown woman who was the mother of all his children except Brydw. [5]

870 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, late 9th Century

Because the date of the material comprising the Historia Brittonum is disputed, and could be later than the Chronicle, some historians argue that the Historia Brittonum took its material from a source close to the Chronicle; but one has to wonder if both do not draw upon an earlier tradition.[2]

These dates post date the mutiny. The Chronicles provide greater detail: they landed in Kent and fought the Picts "defeating them wherever they fought them" - this suggests the Picts had invaded as far as Kent; Hengist and Horsa described "the worthlessness of the Britons, and the richness of the land" and called for more support; more arrived "the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes"; the Saxons populated Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria which suggests they followed the Picts all the way north to the then Kingdoms of Bernicia and Deria. Ida of Bernicia and Aella of Diera seem to have been the first Saxon Kings. The time of their appearance on record is later than Badon but it might be expected that the Kingdom wasn't formed until after. [1]

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was created in the late 9th century during the reign of Alfred the Great, [17] so date it, say, 870. Because the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle originated in monks' attempts to predict the date of Easter, it is arranged by year with notes as to what happened in that year. Therefore it's distinguishing mark, beyond adding new material to the Hengist and Horsa story, is the use of dates.

  • 449 Hengist and Horsa were invited to Britain by Vortigern, landing at Eopwinesfleot (Ebbsfleet). Hengist and Horsa wrote home describing "the worthlessness of the Britons, and the richness of the land" and asked for assistance. Their request was granted and support arrived. Afterward, more people arrived in Britain from "the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes". The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria (leaving their original homeland, Angeln, deserted). Hengist and Horsa, leaders of the forces, were sons of Wihtgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden.[18]
  • 455 Hengist and Horsa fought with Vortigern at Aylesford and that Horsa died there. Hengist took control of the kingdom with his son Esc. [18]
  • 457, Hengist and Esc fought against British forces in Crayford "and there slew four thousand men". The Britons left the land of Kent and fled to London. [18]
  • 465, Hengest and Esc fought again at the Battle of Wippedesfleot, probably near Ebbsfleet, and slew twelve British leaders. [18]
  • 473, the final entry in the Chronicle mentioning Hengist or Horsa, Hengist and Esc are recorded as having taken "immense booty" and the Britons having "fled from the English like fire".[18]

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle provides dates and locations of four battles that Hengest and his brother Horsa fought against the British in southeast Britain in the historic county of Kent. [2]

  • Vortigern is said to have been the commander of the British for only the first battle; the opponents in the next three battles are variously termed "British" and "Welsh", which is not unusual for this part of the Chronicle. [2]
  • No Saxon defeat is acknowledged, but the geographical sequence of the battles suggests a Saxon retreat, and the Chronicle locates the third battle, dated 465 in Wippedsfleot, as the place where the Saxons first landed, thought to be Ebbsfleet near Ramsgate. [2]
  • The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle presents the year 455 as the last date when Vortigern is mentioned. [2]
  • However, the Chronicle is not a single document but the end result of combining several sources over a period of time. The annals for the 5th century in the Chronicle were put into their current form during the 9th century, probably during the reign of Alfred the Great. [19]

The sources for the fifth century annals are obscure, however an analysis of the text demonstrates some poetic conventions, so it is probable that they were derived from an oral tradition, such as sagas in the form of epic poems.[20][21]

Vortigern doesn't re-appear after 455. The Battle of Aylesford is key to the study. [1]

The Anglo Saxon chronicles clearly state with while the Historia Brittonum (by Nennius) suggests the battle was fought against Vortimer and Catigern (sons of Vortigern) who had risen up against the rule. This may have been a result of marrying his pagan wife, Rowen. Historia Regum Britanniae, Book VI, chapter 13, alludes to this. [1]

The Anglo Saxon Chronicles rarely discuss opponents and it might be that the Battle of Aylesford was an attempt to usurp their father. In either event Vortigern was likely dead before or around this event. If we assume these dates d. c 455 then he must have been old for the day (if born c. 375) and it seems highly improbable that he fought at Aylesford.[1]

1100 William of Malmesbury

Writing prior to Geoffrey of Monmouth, William of Malmesbury was noted for adding to the damnatio memoriae of Vortigern: At this time Vortigern was King of Britain; a man calculated neither for the field nor the council, but wholly given up to the lusts of the flesh, the slave of every vice: a character of insatiable avarice, ungovernable pride, and polluted by his lusts. To complete the picture, he had defiled his own daughter, who was lured to the participation of such a crime by the hope of sharing his kingdom, and she had borne him a son. Regardless of his treasures at this dreadful juncture, and wasting the resources of the kingdom in riotous living, he was awake only to the blandishments of abandoned women. — Gesta Regum Anglorum [22]

No other sources confirm this evil description, and it seems safe to assume that this is an exaggeration of accusations made by earlier writers. William does, however, add some detail, no doubt because of a good local knowledge. In De Gestis Regum Anglorum book I, chapter 23.[2]

1150 Geoffrey of Monmouth, History of the Kings of Britain, 12th century

In Chapter 31 and again in 41 Ambrosius Aurelianus is still regarded as a young man. His origin is unknown, obscure even, but Geoffrey of Monmouth suggests, under the name Aurelius Ambrosius, that he was one of three sons of Constantine III, thus a brother to younger Constans above. But if this so in c 420 then Aurelius Ambrosius would have been an old man indeed at Badon in 495.[1]


Geoffrey of Montmouth, in his History of the Kings of Britain, gives the most detailed accounts of Hengist and Horsa, including the elements described earlier, and adding the following:

  • Vortigern did not invite Hengist, but when three brigandines or long galleys arrived in Kent, full of armed men and commanded by the two brothers, Vortigern who was then staying at Dorobernia (Canterbury), ordered that the "tall strangers" be received peacefully and brought to him. When Vortigern saw the company, he immediately observed that the brothers "excelled all the rest both in nobility and in gracefulness of person." He asked what country they had come from and why they had come to his kingdom. Hengist ("whose years and wisdom entitled him to precedence") replied that they had left their homeland of Saxony to offer their services to Vortigern or some other prince, as part of a Saxon custom in which, when the country became overpopulated, able young men were chosen by lot to seek their fortunes in other lands. Hengist and Horsa were made generals over the exiles, as befitted their noble birth, and then assisted Vortigern with his wars, receiving rewards in return.[23]
  • Hengist received repeated approvals for requests to bring more warriors from Germany to assist in Vortigern's wars. He was given approval to build a castle on a piece of land small enough that it could be encircled by a leather thong. Vortigern granted this and ordered Hengist to invite more Saxons. After executing Vortigern's orders, Hengist took a bull's hide and made it into a single thong, which he used to encircle a carefully-chosen rocky place (perhaps at Caistor in Lindsey). [24] Here he built the castle of Kaercorrei, or in Saxon Thancastre: "thong castle."[19][4]
  • Vortigern met Hengist's beautiful daughter, now named Rowena, when she arrived from Germany with eighteen ships full of the best soldiers possible. Hengist invited Vortigern to a celebratory banquet at which Vortigern asked to marry Rowena and granted Hengist Kent in return. [23] (p. 120-121)
  • Vortigern's marriage to Rowena incurred the hatred of his nobles and his three sons. [23] (p. 121)
  • Hengist used his status as father-in-law to claim an advisory role with Vortigern, and to obtain lands in the northern parts of Britain for his sons Octa and Ebissa. [23] (p. 121-122)
  • As Vortigern allowed more and more Saxons to enter, the Britons turned against him and took his son Vortimer for their king. In a series of battles Horsa and Vortimer's brother Catigern were killed and the defeated Saxons fled to Thanet and then boarded their ships and left, leaving their wives and children behind.[23] (p. 122-123)
  • Rowena, however, poisoned the victorious Vortimer and Vortigern returned to the throne.[23] (p. 123)
  • Vortimer invited Hengist back to Britain, instructing him to bring only a small retinue. Hengist instead raised an army of 300,000 men. When Vortigern caught word of the imminent arrival of the vast Saxon fleet, he resolved to fight them. Rowena alerted her father of this, who, after considering various strategies, resolved to make a show of peace and sent ambassadors to Vortigern.[23] (p. 124-125)
  • At a banquet later known as the "night of the long knives", Vortigern and his men arrived to make peace, but were slain by Hengist's men who had hidden their long daggers beneath their clothing. Vortigern was spared and ransomed himself by relinquishing more British territory, including Britain's chief cities, to the Saxons. Once free, Vortigern fled to Cambria (Wales).[23] (p. 125-126)
  • In Cambria, Merlin prophesied to Vortigern that the brothers Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon, who had fled to Armorica as children after Vortigern killed their brother and father, would return to have their revenge and defeat the Saxons. They arrived the next day, and, after rallying the dispersed Britons, Aurelius was proclaimed king. Aurelius marched into Cambria and burned Vortigern alive in his tower, before setting his sights upon the Saxons. [23] (p. 149)
  • Hengist was struck by terror at the news of Vortigern's death and fled with his army beyond the Humber. He took courage at the approach of Aurelius and selected the bravest among his men to defend. Hengist told these chosen men not to be afraid of Aurelius, for he had brought less than 10,000 Armorican Britons, while there were 200,000 Saxons. Hengist and his men advanced towards Aurelius in a field called Maisbeli (probably Ballifield, near Sheffield),[25]

intending to take the Britons by surprise, but Aurelius anticipated them.Cite error 2; Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no content must have a name (p. 149)

  • As they marched to meet the Saxons, Eldol, Duke of Gloucester told Aurelius that he greatly wished to meet Hengist in combat, noting that "one of the two of us should die before we parted." He explained that he had been at the Treachery of the Long Knives, but had escaped when God threw him a stake to defend himself with, making him the only Briton present to survive. Meanwhile, Hengist was placing his troops into formation, giving directions, and walking through the lines of troops, "the more to spirit them up." [23] (p. 150-151) A furious battle commenced. The Saxons maintained their ground despite heavy losses. Then a detachment of horses from the Armorican Britons arrived led by Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall arrived, and Eldol, knowing the day was won and grabbed Hengist's helmet, dragging him into the British ranks. The Saxons fled. Hengist's son Octa retreated to York and his kinsman Eosa to Alclud (Dumbarton).[23] (p. 153)
  • After a council three days after the battle, Eldol beheaded Hengist. Octa and Eosa surrendered to Aurelius, who granted them the country bordering Scotland and made a firm covenant with them. [23] (p. 154)
  • Just after the Romans leave, the archbishop of London is put forward by the representatives of Britain to organise the island's defences. To do so, he arranges for continental soldiers to come to Britain. The name of the bishop is Guitelin, a name similar to the Vitalinus mentioned in the ancestry of Vortigern and to the Vitalinus said to have fought with an Ambrosius at the Battle of Guoloph (Battle of Wallop). This Guithelin/Vitalinus disappears from the story as soon as Vortigern arrives. All these coincidences imply that Geoffrey duplicated the story of the invitation of the Saxons, and that the tale of Guithelinus the archbishop might possibly give some insight into the background of Vortigern before his acquisition of power.[2]
  • Geoffrey states that Vortigern was the successor of Constans, the son of the usurping emperor Constantinus III. Vortigern used Constans as a puppet king and ruled the nation through him until he finally managed to kill him through the use of insurgent Picts.[2]
  • Geoffrey is the first to mention Hengest de Cantia Regnum and the name of Hengest's daughter, who seduces Vortigern to marry her, after which his sons rebel, as a certain Ronwen recorded Rowena, also called Renwein, neither of which is a Germanic name. [2]
  • Like the Historia Brittonum, Geoffrey adds that Vortigern was succeeded briefly by his son Vortimer, only to assume the throne again when Vortimer is killed.[2]
  • Geoffrey provides that Vortigern was the Leader of the Gewissei tribe "Dux Gewissei". They were a tribe of Britons based around Dorchester on Thames and it is entirely probable that they held large tracts of lands in Kent. It is not clear whether they existed prior to the Anglo Saxon occupation but they were certainly allied and supported by it, indeed many historians treat Gewisse (which is a Saxon name anyway) and West Saxons and Wessex synonomously.

The Gewissei are known to have fought against the "Britons" notably at Old Sarum in 552 and Barbury Castle in 556. Later, by 680 they held control of Hampshire and later became the founders of the Kingdom of Wessex. If we follow this line and accept Geoffrey of Monmouth the only other time we see the phrase "Dux Gewisse" is when he discusses Octvian, father-in-law to Magnus Maximus who appears in most of the 15 Tribes of Wales. [1]

  • Geoffrey of Monmouth states that Maximianus was titled king of the Britons following the death of Eudaf Hen (Lt: Octavius). In Geoffrey's account, Octavius was a half-brother to Constantine I, who, under Roman rule was called King of the Britons following the death of his father Constantius (d. 306). [1]
  • Constantine became Roman Emperor leaving Briton to a proconsul. Octavius then rose up and killed the proconsul and, of course, Constantine sent an army to quell the uprising. Although initially fleeing Britain, for Norway, he returns and eventually defeats the Roman legions thus reclaiming the title King of Britons. He eventually abdicates the throne in favour of Maximianus. [1]
  • Geoffrey of Monmouth's account suggests that Vortigern was the successor of Constans, the son of the usurping emperor Constantinus III. Further, Vortigern used Constans as a puppet king and ruled the nation through him until he finally managed to kill him through the use of insurgent Picts. [1]

Local legends

A valley on the north coast of the Lleyn Peninsula, known as Nant Gwrtheyrn or "Vortigern's Gorge", is named after Vortigern, and until modern times had a small barrow known locally as "Vortigern's Grave", along with a ruin known as "Vortigern's Fort". However, this conflicts with doubtful reports that he died in his castle on the river Teifi in Dyfed ("Nennius") or his tower at Little Doward in Herefordshire (Geoffrey of Monmouth).[2]

Other fortifications associated with Vortigern are at Arfon in Gwynedd, Bradford-on-Avon in Wiltshire, Carn Fadrun in Gwynedd, Clwyd in Powys, Llandysul in Dyfed, Old Carlisle in Cumberland, Old Sarum in Wiltshire, Rhaeadr Gwy in Powys, Snowdon and Stonehenge in Wiltshire. [26]

1881 Jacob Youde Lloyd

Writing in 1881, Jacob Youde Lloyd stated that in 446, Gwetheyr Gwrthened, of Voltiger, Prince of Erging, Ewiaa and Caer Glouyw or Gloucester, was elected King of Britain, upon the assassination of King Conataos in the year 446. [7]

The Brut of G. ab Arthur states, that Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu, Prince of Erging and Ewias, became King of Britain after the assassination of King Constans in 385, Haigh in his IIistoy of the Conquest of Britain by the Saxons, in 425, and the Brut of G. ab Arthur states, that in 430 Uthyr and Emrys or Ambrosius, the sons of Cystennyn Fendigaid, King of Britain, and brothers of the late King Constans, came with a large army against Vortigern, who fled towards Cymru (Wales) and took up his quarters in his castle of Goronwy in Erging, which was built on the summit of a mountain, called Mynydd Denarcb, on the banks of the river Wye, which river flows from Mynydd KJorach. On their arrival there, Uthyr and Emrys calling to mind that Vortigern had been the cause of the deaths of their father and brother, and had brought the Saxons into the country, they determined to besiege that castle, and to burn it down to the ground ; and all that were in the castle, both of men and beasts, were burnt. And Gwrtheyrn was slain and burnt. [7]

Other accounts state that in 448, Vortigern was compelled by Uthyr and Aurelius Ambrosius (Emrys) to take refuge in his fortress of Caer Gwrtheyrn in Erging, whither he was accompanied by St. Germanus, who is said to have remained with him to the last, imploring him to repent and make his peace with God. Seeing that remonstrance was in vain, Germanus left the King, and retired to Italy, where he died at Ravenna, 25 July 448. [7]

From this it appears that two British Kings, Benlli Gawr and Vortigern, both perished with their garrisons in the conflagration of their respective fortresses, in the same year, from not attending to the advice and the remonstrances of Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre. Other accounts, however, state that Vortigern did not perish in the fortress of Castell Goronwy, or Caer Gwrtheyrn, which last name the fortress may have received in after times, but that he escaped from the conflagration, and died in obscurity at Llanaelhaiarn in Carnarvonshire ; where a tomb, in which the bones of a man of large stature were found, which has always been designated as " Bedd Gwrtheyrn, the grave of Vortigern, and the neighbouring valley has ever since borne the name of Nant Gwrtheyrn. [7]

One of the names of the traditional burial places of Vortigern is preserved in stanza xl of the collection entitled the " Verses of the Graves," or " Verses of the Warriors", in the Black Book of Caermarihen : — [7]

" Ebet yn ystyuacheu, Y mae paup yny amheu, Bet gurtheyra giirtheneu/^

Four Ancient Books of Wales, ii, 32.

The grave m Ystyvacliau, Which everyone suspects to be The grave of Gwrtheym Gwrtheneu/'

In order to secure himself on the throne of Britain, Gwrtheym invited over the Saxons under Hengist and Horsa in 454. [7]

And soon afterwards he married Rhonwen or Rowena, the daughter of Hengist, upon whom he bestowed in a drunken fit the Isle of Thanet in Kent. [7]

In 464, the Britons succeeded in defeating the Saxons, and then made his son Vortimer or Gwrthevyr, called also Gwrthevyr Fendigaid, King instead of Vortigern ; but the former having been poisoned by means of his step- mother in 468, Vortigern was set upon the throne and reigned till 481, when he was attacked by Emrys and Uthjrr, the sons of Constantine, in his castle of Goronwy- in-Erging on the Wye. [7]

Robert Vermaat at Vortigen Studies

Robert Vermaat presents his version of this historical Vortigen. [27]

Vermaat posits that at the end of the Roman era in Britain, there was a man of high standing, whose family had large posessions in the western Midlands, central and south Wales. This man was called Vitalinus and he had acquired a high position in either the British church or in the Civil Service of the Roman Empire. [27]

Vitalinus was also a rich land-owner, married to a daughter (Sevira) of the late usurper Magnus Maximus. [27]

Vermaat: By the year 425 Vitalinus became the most powerful man in Britain, though he ruled with a Council of representatives (proto-princes) from the Civitates and other emerging centres of regional power. His own power was based largely on the province of Britannia Prima, and a large part of that province later became the kingdom of Powys. [27]

Vermaat: Even before 425, Vitalinus received troops from Armorica for the defence of Britain and no doubt for his own position. These troops had been serving in the Roman army and were indistinguishable from their Germanic collegues still serving on the continent. The coming of these Germanic forces was later remembered as the Adventus Saxonum, though others arrived at a later date as well. Vortigern, MS from Bologna. c. 1270 [27]

Vermaat: When he became the most powerful ruler in Britain, Vitalinus changed his name to Vortigern for political reasons. 'Vortigern' is no title, but has a distinct political claim through the name, a claim of 'highest ruler among other rulers'. Vortigern then went on to suppress the opposition, as the conflict with Ambrosius at Wallop in 437 shows. Vortigern won that battle. [27]

Vermaat: After some years the federates revolted, for they saw that it was in fact they that held supreme power in Britain due to their military supremacy. [27]

Vermaat: This revolt happened probably around 441. Vortigern was betrayed and his kingship ended effectively at this point. Whether he disappeared shortly after this, or that his son Vortimer had been king for a brief period is not clear, but I believe he died and Vortimer took over, after which their persons became confused by later authors. [27]

Vermaat: Was Vortigern responsible for the demise of Britain? With the previous summary in mind, I think not. He acted together with other British rulers at the time, and I do not hold him responsible for the revolt. [27]

Vermaat: Maybe the British lost at the time of Ambrosius Aurelianus (when we remind ourselves of the continental adventure of Riothamus), or through the civil wars that are mentioned by Gildas. The British had themselves to blame, but Vortigern was an easy scapegoat. [27]

Vortigen may have been the "superbus tyrannus" said to have invited Hengist and Horsa to aid him in fighting the Picts and the Scots. However, they revolted, killing his son in the process and forming the Kingdom of Kent. It is said that he took refuge in North Wales, and that his grave was in Dyfed or the Llŷn Peninsula. He is cited at the beginning of the genealogy of the early Kings of Powys. [2]

Links: Complementary Material in Other Profiles

A number of other profiles have some relationship to the Vortigern legend. They are listed below with links embedded.

Parents of Vortigern

Wives of Vortigern

  • Severa. Jacob Lloyd stated that Vortigern, King Gwrtheym Gwrtheneu left issue by his first wife Seveira (the daughter of the Emperor Flavius Clemens Maximus, a Spaniard, who was Governor of Britain in 370, and having defeated and slain the Emperor Gratian, was proclaimed Emperor of Rome, by the army in Britain, in 383, and who was put to death by Theodosius at Aquileia in 388). These three were Gwartimer, Cynderyn, and Vortimer. [7]
  • Rowena

'Children of Vortigern

Birth Year Estimation. If Vortigern was born in 375 and died in 459, his children could be born as early as 391 when he was 16. Severa was about the same age and the same could therefore be said of her. If she was born in 375, she would have been aged 40 in 415. In the absence of other bases for estimation, assume their first child was born in 391 and children followed thereafter at two year intervals, however, to account for unrecorded girls, assume that the boys were born at four year intervals.

  • Gwartimer. One of three children identifed by Lloyd as children of Vortigern and Seveira. [7] New birth estimate 391.
  • Cynderyn. One of three children identifed by Lloyd as children of Vortigern and Seveira. [7] Cynderyn, one of three sons listed by Lloyd that Vortigern had by his Queen Seveira. [7] New birth estimate 395. From this second son Cyndeym descended the Kings and Princes of Powys, and the Tribe of Tudor Trevor, but according to the monk Nennius, they descended from a totally different stock. [7] Cyndeyrn bravely fought against the Saxons, and was slain in 457. Cyndeyrn was the father of
    1. Rhuddfedyl Frych, the father of Rhydwf, the father of Pasgen, whose name is mentioned in the inscription on the column of Eliseg. [7]Cadeyrn King of Powys, (Gwrtheyrn) Vortigern, born 404, Powys, Wales[28] When Vortigern, born 375, would have been 29. Cadeyrn Fendigaid, born 435.[28] When Vortigern, born 375, would have been aged 60.
  • Fasccns, one of three sons listed by Lloyd Vortigern had by his Queen Seveira, who afterwards became King of Buallt. [7] New birth estimate 399.
  • Vortimer. One of three children identifed by Lloyd as children of Vortigern and Seveira. [7] Gwerthefyr Fendigaid (or Vortimer), One of five children identified by Boyer, citing Bartrum, as a child of Vortigern. [5] Vortimer, the eldest, one of five children of Vortimer listed by Bartrum and Boyer. Vortimer fought four times against the Saxons, and put them to flight. [7] Gwerthefyr Fendigaid or Vortimer, had daughter S. Madrun who may have married Ynyr Gwent I [5] Vortimer Fendigaid was born 402[28], when Vortigern, born 375, would have been aged 27. New birth estimate 403 *Vortimer Fendigaid, born 402
  • Cateyrn, One of five children identified by Boyer, citing Bartrum, as a child of Vortigern. [5] Cateyrn, one of five children of Vortimer listed by Bartrum and Boyer. Cateyrn was slain in the same battle with Horsa. Cateyrn, had son Rhuddfedel Frych and possible son Cadell Ddrynllug, the latter the King of Powys. [5] Cateryn ap Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu (or Vortigern), who married Severa ferch Macsen Wledig, who was Maximus, Emperor of Rome, who died 388. [29] Severa's birth has been estimated as about 370. Estimate Cateryn's birth as 395. New birth estimate 407.*Cadeyrn Fendigaid, born 435 Cadeyrn (Gwrtheyrn) Vortigern born Powys, 404 Is this also Categirn? #Categirn was the father of
    1. Cadell Deyrnllwg ab Pasgen, King of Teyrnllwg, who had issue, three sons, according to the Harl. MS. 4181 .
      1. Cyngen, King of Powys or Teyrnllwg ;
      2. Gwynfyn Frych, Prince of Drewen or Whittington and Maelor ; and
      3. Iddig, the ancestor of Cywryd ab Cadvan, who bore argent three boars' heads couped sahle armed or and langued gules.
  1. Cateryn ap Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu (or Vortigern)
    1. Cadell Ddyrnllug, possible son of Cateryn ap Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu (or Vortigern), who married Severa ferch Macsen Wledig, who was Maximus, Emperor of Rome, who died 388.[29] Estimate Cadell's birth as 420
  • Pasgen, One of five children identified by Boyer, citing Bartrum, as a child of Vortigern. [5] Pascent, who reigned in the two provinces Builth and Guorthegirnaim, after the death of his father. These were granted him by Ambrosius, who was the great king among the kings of Britain. Pasgen, King of Buellt and Gwrtheyrnion, who had Mawgan and Brincat[5] Pascent (Gwrtheyrn) ap Vortigen, born 380[28], five years after his father's birth. New birth estimate 411. Pascent (Gwrtheyrn) ap Vortigen born 410
  • Brydw, One of five children identified by Boyer, citing Bartrum, as a child of Vortigern. [5] Brydw Ap Vortigen, born 370 [28], five years before his father's birth. Brydw, flourished 433-462[5] New birth estimate 415 *Brydw Ap Vortigen, born 408
  • a daughter. One of five children identified by Boyer, citing Bartrum, as a child of Vortigern. [5] Had son Faustus by Vortigern, her father.[5] New birth estimate 393. The last was Faustus, born of an incestuous marriage with his daughter, who was brought up and educated by St. Germanus. He built a large monastery on the banks of the river Renis, called after his name, and which remains to the present period.[30] New birth estimate 419, when his mother, born 393, would have been 26.

Other Profiles

  • Arthur. The BBC historical site treats King Arthur as an historical person. The great figure in the struggle between the British and the Saxons is Arthur. He may be an inheritor of a Roman tradition, for the Romans had an officer - the Dux Britanniarum (Duke of Britain) - who was leader of a mobile force charged with the duty of protecting the integrity of the Roman province. [3]
  • Audoacre or Eadwacer, a Saxon leader who fought Childeric, King of the Franks, has been disconnected as there is no reason to believe he was the son of either Vortigern of the Britons (born ca 375 or of Rowena, a legendary daughter of Hengist.

Parents and Spouses of Hengist

Children of Hengist

  1. Rowena (Wittik) Wenden Rowena, as mentioned above Hengest's daughter, first appears in the Historia Brittonum, written about
  2. Hrodwynn ferch Hengest
  3. Hartwaker (the Saxons) von Sachsen Successor. Later sources[31] make Hengist a King of the Saxons before he embarks for England, apparently his eldest son, Harwaker (Hartwake) succeed him in that role. There is no mention of him in any of the early sources and he must definitely be legendary.
  4. Hatwigate Sachsen
  5. Osta of Asgard Oesc/Aesc (Oisc/Oeric/Oese), sometimes his son, and sometimes his grandson[32]
  6. Hartwake (Of Saxony) Sachsen

Free Space Profiles

Sources

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  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Wales History: 3. The Origins of the Welsh kingdoms. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch3_origins_of_welsh_kingdoms.shtml. Accessed Jan 30, 2017. jhd
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Vortigern. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortigern. Retrieved Jan 30 2017. jhd
  5. 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 Carl Boyer, 3rd. Medieval Welsh Ancestors of Certain Americans. Santa Clarita, California: By the Author: 2004. Macsen Wledig: Of the legendary lines, that of Macsen Wledig is one of the most interesting...David Peate developed his hypothesis in part from the works of Bede and Geoffrey of Monmouth as well as Eliseg's Pillar near llangollen, which was transcribed by Edward Llwyd in 1696, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles Severa ferch Macsen Wledig, wife of Gwrtheyrn Gwrtheneu, also known as Vortigern, is #2 on page 242
  6. Saxons and Vikings in Britain Accessed Sept 3, 2017. jhd
  7. 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 Jacob Youde William Lloyd (1816-1887). The history of the princes, the lords marcher, and the ancient nobility of Powys Fadog, and the ancient lords of Arwystli, Cedewen and Meirionydd. London: T. Richards, 1881. Book digitized by Google from the library of the University of Michigan and uploaded to the Internet Archive by user tpb. https://archive.org/stream/historyprincesl04lloygoog/historyprincesl04lloygoog_djvu.txt. See also: The History of Powys Fadog (T. Richards, London, 1881) [https://archive.org/stream/historyprincesl04lloygoog#page/n23 Vol. 1, Page 1. Retrieved Jan 30, 2017 jhd
  8. Vermaat, R. (n.d.). When did Gildas write? Retrieved from Vortigern Studies: British history 400-600 http://www.vortigernstudies.org.uk/artsou/gildwhen.htm 1 January 2016.
  9. Snyder, Christopher A. (1998). An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 305. ISBN 0-271-01780-5. Cited by Wikipedia.
  10. 10.0 10.1 10.2 Gildas, 3, 21
  11. Gildas, 3, 23
  12. 12.0 12.1 12.2 Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed about 731. See also Ecclesiastical History of England, rev. trans. A.M. Sellar, London: George Bell & Sons, 1907. pp. 30, 95. Retrieved from https://archive.org/stream/ecclesiasticalhrevbedeuoft#page/n5/mode/2up
  13. 13.0 13.1
  14. 14.0 14.1 Nennius. http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/nennius-full.asp. Accessed Jan 28, 2017. jhd
  15. 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 Gunn, William (1819). Historia Brittonum. London: Printed for John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. Pages 18-34. Cited in Wikipedia. Hengist and Horsa Accessed September 1, 2017. jhd
  16. Nennius, section 37
  17. Wikipedia Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Accessed Sept 4, 2017 jhd
  18. 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 Ingram, James Henry (1823). The Saxon chronicle, with an English Translation and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster-Row. Pages 13-16. Cited in Wikipedia. Hengist and Horsa Accessed September 1, 2017. jhd
  19. Swanton, Michael (1998). The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. New York; London: Routledge. pp. xxi–xxviii. ISBN 0-415-92129-5. Cited by Wikipedia.
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  22. John Sharpe (trans.), The History of the Kings of England and the Modern History of William of Malmsbury, London: W. Bulmer & Co., 1815. Cited by Wikipedia.
  23. 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 Thompson, Aaron (1842). The British History of Geoffrey of Monmouth: In Twelve Books. London: James Bohn. Pages 116-155. In his pseudo-historical twelfth century work The History of the Kings of Britain, Geoffrey of Monmouth adapted and greatly expanded the account in the History of the Britons. Hengist and Horsa appear in books 6 and 8. Cited in Wikipedia. Hengist and Horsa Accessed September 1, 2017. jhd
  24. Ashley, Michael (2005). A Brief History of King Arthur. Constable & Robinson. ISBN 1472107659. Cited in Wikipedia. Hengist and Horsa Accessed September 1, 2017. jhd
  25. English, Mark (2014). "Maisbeli: A Place-Name Problem from Geoffrey of Monmouth". Notes & Queries. 259: 11–13. Retrieved 14 July 2014. Cited in Wikipedia. Hengist and Horsa Accessed September 1, 2017. jhd
  26. vortigernstudies.org.uk. Cited by Wikipedia.
  27. 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 Robert Vermaat. Vortigern Studies Accessed Feb 5, 2017
  28. 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4
  29. 29.0 29.1
  30. Historia Brittonum, chapter 48. retrieved 2014-04-28, amb
  31. for instance Anderson, p. 447, Table CCXV and p. 733, Table CCCCLXXX
  32. Venning, p. 15

Bibliography of Frequently Cited Texts

See also:

Vortigern Studies website:

  • "Vortigern" on National Library of Wales Dictionary of Welsh Biography
  • Cunliffe, Barry (15 October 2012). "Anglo-Saxon Portraits: Vortigern". BBC Radio 3.
  • Anderson, J. (1732). Royal Genealogies: or the genealogical tables of Emperors, Kings and Princes from Adam to these times, London: James Bettenham. pp. 184 & 447. Retrieved from https://books.google.hu/books?id=yrqeY839bMwC
  • Lyon, Bryce. "From Hengist and Horsa to Edward of Caernarvon: Recent writing on English history" in Elizabeth Chapin Furber, ed. Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939 (Harvard University Press, 1966), pp 1–57; historiography
  • Lyon, Bryce. " Change or Continuity: Writing since 1965 on English History before Edward of Caernarvon," in Richard Schlatter, ed., Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966 (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 1–34, historiography
  • Thorpe, Benjamin (1855). The Anglo-Saxon Poems of Beowulf, the Scôp or Gleeman's Tale, and The Fight at Finnesburg. Oxford University Press.





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As well as clean up after merge, I've deleted Brian Starr's book from list of sources. It is total nonsense, and it we are going to include it, then we might as well include every online tree as well.
posted by John Atkinson