Mines of Clausthal and Harz mountains of Germany

1. Einleitung (Introduction) "Before the course begins to build miner, he must observe seven different: Erdoberflächenform, Erdoberflächenbeschaffenheit, water, roads, air, territorial sovereignty, neighbor" Georg Agricola in 1559

Clausthal MarketPlatz

Since the end of the Neolithic came up the processing of copper, man seeks strengthened by metal ores. Was it at the beginning of above-ground ore had to be dug deeper and deeper into the mountains over time . This required greater expertise and led to an increasingly sophisticated mining techniques . Specific professions developed ( Steiger, Pocharbeiter , Mined ) with a specific jargon that the layman is only revealed partially . All regions but were influenced by the ore , the manners and customs of the miners by the mine-specific environmental damage. One of the oldest mining areas in Germany , the Harz , a low mountain range in northern Germany , now part of the territories of the states of Lower Saxony and Saxony- Anhalt. The beginnings of the resin -rich mining probably back to prehistoric times . Is currently believed that ores were mined as early as the Bronze Age. Archaeological evidence are Germanic ferrous metal smelters at Daugava / Osterode around 300 AD.

From the year 968, there is a documented confirmation of absorption of silver mining in the Rammelsberg near Goslar. After many Harz miners had moved to Freiberg in the Ore Mountains to the exploitation of newly discovered silver find spots already in 1168, it came in 1180 to a further exodus of Goslar in the Ore Mountains. Cause was the destruction of the imperial mines at Rammelsberg by the Guelphs in the war between the Emperor Barbarossa and Duke Henry the Lion. In Freiberg, the name "Sächsstadt" still on the Goslar HIN1.

Abb. 1: Erzlager und Siedlungen im Westharz2, rechts: Abb. 2: Die Landesherren von St. Andreasberg3 Figure 1: mineral reserves and settlements in Westharz2, right: Figure 2: The rulers of St. Andreasberg3 NOTE: figures to be added later.

In the 14th Century mining operations came to a standstill in the Upper Harz. This was partly probably because it was no longer possible to reduce above-ground ores (pinging). Bays only went down to a depth 10-11 Lachter (20-22 m) 4 Then the water and the problems of weather feed (oxygen supply) stopped the deeper mining. The technical knowledge of that time was not sufficient to reduce intra-day in great style. Also, the road network was not well enough developed to bring the assisted ores easily trade places. The final blow came in 1348 by the great plague that nearly entvölkerte5 the Upper Harz.

During the Middle Ages there were different owners in the resin (Fig. 2). (Founded in 1127), next to the Emperor, the Cistercian Monastery Walkenried, several counties (Scharzfeld, rain Blankenburg, Hohn stone), it was mainly the Guelphs, the - split into different lines - promoted the mining industry. The mountain towns Zellerfeld, Wild Man, According to Thal and reason were the line Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Clausthal relaxed Sunday and St. Andrew mountain of Brunswick-Luneburg-Grubenhagen. Through the extinction of the Wolfenbüttel line 1634, there was a redistribution of the seven remaining Guelph princes whose jurisdiction temporarily changed annually until the area in the end of the Elector of Hanover and King fiel6

As can be seen from a traditional instrument to disputes between two disciplines (mining operations) through mine fields, was already in 1487 (today Bad Loud Hill) for ore in the area of St. Andrew mountain in county Lutterberg again. This was not yet a country from the Lord (the Counts of Hohenstein as vassals of the dukes of Calenberg-Grubenhagen) support to private companies with mining but probably only a small Umfang8. Already in 1470 to the Count Heinrich of Stollberg and Dietrich of wit life (bailiff to Sangerhausen) haben9 taken first mines back into operation.

After silver was discovered in 1520 promised a greater future earnings , enacted the Count Heinrich and Ernst von Hohenstein , gentlemen Lohra and Velcro Mountain, in 1521, a first mountain freedom of the Saxon- Bohemian model. Despite the far-reaching benefits at a time when serfdom prevailed in the country, only miners were out of the room Joachimsthal10 St. (now Jachymov ) attracted in the Ore Mountains , as the local mining just stuck in a crisis. In Mansfeld ( copper mining ) as well as in the rest of Saxon and Bohemian Erzgebirge mining flourished too , as the resin with its still too small finds could be attractive können11 . But six years later, it was quite different : After the announcement of the second mountain freedom of Hohnsteiner Count ( 1527 ) put a large immigration from various parts of the Erzgebirge (especially Freiberg , Annaberg ) , and probably also from a Mansfeld . Pit with all their workforces Increase subjected closed in the resin. They brought modern knowledge in the Harz mountain seven cities and their dialect of the Upper Harz prägt12.Ob already came up today at this time miners from Tirol - as mentioned in the older literature - can not be proven . The beginnings of the silver rush in the St. Andrew Berg must have been desolate. There was the law of the jungle and it was herumgeschürft haphazardly . They lived in primitive accommodation on site, during the administrative headquarters as well as the official residence in the spots on the edge of the Harz mountain Loud lagen13 . In order to prevent the worst excesses of a mountain Code was adopted in 1528 . In it, the mine was operating legally regulated and established a mining authority as a regulatory body . In order to greatly shorten the daily traveling distances to the pits , leaving the Sovereign same gründen14 a permanent settlement for the miners and their families on the mountain. This is the official founding year of the mountain town of St. Andrew Berg. Modeled on the mountain Hohnsteiner freedoms enacted in 1532 Duke Henry the Younger of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel also a mountain in the area of freedom Zellerfeld. (Fig. 3). Miners came back from the Erzgebirge, which now also brought their Protestant religion and defended fiercely against the Roman Catholic Duke. The ducal Rekatholisierungsversuche (1541) failed due to the threat of the miners to emigrate again. 22 years later (1554) also drew Duke Ernst IV of Grubenhagen in and let the dilapidated mines in the Clausthälern belegen15 again.

To 1157 were the monks of the monastery Walkenried designated by them on "St. Andrews Mountain "probably for ore prospecting 13th Century: Hugh of Dorrefeld is proven to be the richest mine owners (in 1287 he must pit his possession to a civil pledge Goslar)

1347 to depopulation of the Upper Harz 1487 first mention of "sanct andrews the mountain" 1521 The Count of Hohenstein adopt the first mountain freedom, at St. Andrew Berg, the Samson Pit was founded 1528 settlement of St. Andrew Berg is founded "on the mountain" in connection with the adoption of a mining order by the sovereign. It was named after St. Andrew, the patron saint of Mansfeld miners In 1537 the town charter. At this time, the place already comprised 300 houses with about 2000 inhabitants. Council and judges take office. 116 mines operated 1542-1549 first crisis in which to bring the mines do not yield 1550 establishment of Andreas Berger Silberhütte with high yield 1570 first heyday of Andreas Berger silver mining, and the city has 7000-8000 people 24/05/1576 rainwater floods destroy the road network 1577 only 39 mines in operation, of which only two get a yield 1577 plague epidemic 1579 constantly declining yield leads to a strong depletion of the population 1593 St. Andrew Berg gets a hammer coin, which is in operation to 1629 1596 plague epidemic 1611-1624 The trades generate highly indebted in their remaining 16 pits no longer yield. The mining comes to a halt 1624 demolition of the Silver Hut and resolution of the Bureau of Mines A plague epidemic in 1625, the population drops to 1,000 people 1648 At the end of the Thirty Years' War, there is - apart from Clausthal - in the Upper Harz mining scheduled no more, because both money and manpower are missing The 1653 crop is banned because it binds workers. For a short time the work will be resumed in two pits As 1655 Duke Christian Ludwig of Brunswick-Lüneburg cares about the restoration of mining 1663 the St. Andrew Berger Mining Authority arises also the Silver Hut to be rebuilt 1669-1672 The mining industry rests, since no increase in water available for the water wheels 1672: The Mining Authority takes over the management, the trades only pay a Zubuße or get the yield 1674: After 60 years, the first silver recovery takes place. Thanks yield from the thaler "Andreae montani Ludovici haec munera venae" is (miners to mine the mountain on St. Andrew Ludwig deliver these gifts to the lodes) marked 1683-1703: Due to weather-related water shortages occur several times to shutdowns, temporarily, the yield rises again, the so-called Rehberger Graben is built 1700-1730: With a silver recovery of 1000-2000 kg per year, there is a second mining heyday of 1714-1721 Oderteich, 1716 Sieber, the tunnel will be built After 1730, the costs for silver recovery and simultaneously decreases the yield 1739/1740 The population is 3415, of which 388 are mining and metallurgy, and 158 people Pochknaben 1765: In the mountain town of 2573 inhabitants from about 1775 through technical improvements, the mines and smelting costs are reduced 1796 in a fire on 8 October, destroyed 249 houses, which were built mostly thanks to existing insurance quickly

Abb. 5: Der Marktplatz in Clausthal 1865 mit Marktkirche, Oberbergamt (Mitte links) und Bergakademie. Aquarell von Wilhelm Ripe (1818-1885). Archiv Oberharzer Bergwerksmuseum19 Figure 5: The marketplace in Clausthal 1865 Market Church, Oberbergamt (center left) and Mountain Academy. Watercolor by Wilhelm Ripe (1818-1885). Archive Oberharzer Bergwerksmuseum19

1554 Duke Ernst IV of Calenberg-Grubenhagen granted a mountain freedom to rebuild the ruined mines in the Clausthälern 1625: The plague victims over 1,350 calls 1626 of the imperial general Tilly occupied the allied Clausthal and Zellerfeld enemy destroyed the neighboring 1634 total 160 houses and church, coin, town hall, school will be destroyed in a great fire 1639 a further 50 houses from burning 1642 construction of the parish church Clausthal In 1725 a major fire destroyed 400 houses 1732/34 establishing the Sperber Hauer dam, an aqueduct of 1000 m length and 16 m height 1756-1763: In the Seven Years War, the French occupy multiple Clausthal. The mountain towns pay in the Seven Years War, a war tax to the French high Occupiers to prevent the threatened mine destruction, fire and subsidence Bevölkerungsausplünderungen 1799 completion of the "depths Georg tunnel" 1807 Napoleon assumed Clausthal the Kingdom of Westphalia 1833 Louis William Doerell reinvents driving skills, which greatly facilitates getting into a mine 1924 merger with the neighboring town of the municipality of Clausthal-Zellerfeld

6 Bergarbeit20

"Given below is a confused noise and hum, you come resistant to beams and ropes that are moving to the tonnes tapped ores or hervorgesinterte water heraufzuwinden. Sometimes you get in through carved corridors, called tunnels, where the ore grow and see where the solitary miner sitting all day and cumbersome to hammer the pieces of ore out of the wall knocks " Heinrich Heine in the autumn of 1824 after his visit to the Clausthal pit Caroline and Dorothea21 Over time, the changes in work underground, thanks to new inventions - but how it looked in the early days? In the Middle Ages, the mines were small businesses with a field size of 7 x 7 Lach Tern. A mining depth 20-30 m could only be achieved if the ground water could be kept low in adjacent pits. It involved the water servants "who were on trips (ladders) and the" Bulgen "(bucket) each zureichten22. With the help of Schlegel, iron and wedge hoe (Fig. 6) to an average distance of advance of about 1 cm per man-shift could be achieved (relative to 1.7 m). To hoist the ore, enough with the small Stollenteufe a simple reel (Fig. 7).

Water raised with water

Thanks to the revolutionary hydropower technology in the 16th Century developed, the mining could enter a new phase after 1520th The interplay of ponds, ditches and tunnels, which collected the water and / or water wheel drives, to advance the mining industry in previously unreachable depths succeeded. At the same time the problem of groundwater elevation was corrected with the help of water drainage gallery. The latter were beaten by hand (only with sticks and iron) in the mountain - up to 1606 a total of 22,000 m Wasserlösungsstrecke23 could be completed.

In order to transport the mined ore in the tunnel was in the 2nd Half of the 16th Century, the usual run of the carts so-called "dogs" or "Hunten" replaced. Below is a four-wheeled wooden trolley to understand the "led by a mounted between the front wheels track between two nail nailed to the sole of the tunnels and routes slats" .24

When the tunnels were always deeper, you led in the second Half of the 16th A century the Pferdegöpel and about 1620 the Kehrrad. With a gin hand the amount of 20 reels could be pulled at a shaft depth of 200 m at once if you started 4 draft horses. Even more meaningful was the water wheels (reciprocal wheels). In the Samson Pit in St. Andrew Mountain, you can admire a preserved Kehrrad, which has a diameter of 9 m. By 1900, 88 water wheels in St. Andrew Berg were in operation.

Another Technological Change in the 16th Century was the replacement of the previously used hemp ropes that had to be replaced three times per year for 130 guilders purchase price by the significantly longer-lived "iron ropes", ds iron chains. This just had to be renewed every 5-6 years and had a purchase price of only 12 guilders. Until the 19th Century remained unchanged, the mining tools of the miners although the introduction of powder blasting in 1632 the work a bit easier. However, the holes still had to be beaten by hand.

But prior to mining was once the retraction (climbing) in the pit. In St Andrew Berg Samsonstollens of the miners had on the rides (ladders) clib down. The total distance was 810mfor the 90 minutes you had to climb down. The total distance was 810m for the 90 minutes you had to climb down, the back usually lasted 150 min. Only after the introduction of the wire driving skills of the ridge Doerell from Clausthal invented in 1833, incorporated in 1837, the entry and exit shortened to 45 min. 27.

Arbeitsunfälle und Krankheiten (Work accidents and illnesses)

The typical diseases of miners can be roughly divided into two groups: 1 Accident phenomena 2 Poisoning. The underground work was dangerous. You could plunge into shafts or workings , be slain by masses of rock or crushed by machinery . In blasting the rock gunpowder could cause devastating injuries. There was also the so-called " beating Weather" , which could lead to explosions or fatal lack of oxygen , depending on the composition of air . " Green Was My Valley " were rare in the resin , since no solid rock and coal was mined . Nevertheless, the Harz miners had a " life insurance " tame songbirds in the shaft , in order to assess their behavior can based on whether the oxygen content or nicht29 enough to survive. In the Upper Harz is documentary evidence for the period 1751-1910 of 110 fatal accidents . It is estimated that 200-250 people sind30 fatal accident since the start of the mountain screaming . (A table here unfortunately cannot be translated showing the number and types of accidents that occurred)MS Insidious because the cause was not known for a long time, was another typical miners disease: the so-called "mountain addiction", (In America I believe this is what we refer to as “black lung disease—MS) "hut cat" or "disease of the breast". Including one understood the fatal lead poisoning, which was mainly in the silver and copper mines of the day. The most striking symptom was the sudden emerging Darmkoliken32. The most shocking representations of this scourge is Hans Moler woodcut from 1532

Dying Miner

The oldest reference to the official setting of a mountain physician found in 1572 , when Duke Julius of Brunswick -Wolfenbüttel bestallte a mountain doctor to treat the miners free . Four years later, the Duke had also set up a pharmacy Zellerfeld . Around the same time was the official establishment of a hospital or almshouse in Zellerfeld, to provide poor or disabled miners to können.34 middle of the 17th Century are then found evidence that in all mining towns ( both in the resin as in the Ore Mountains ) mountain mountain doctors and surgeons lebten35 . One of the most important inventions of the Harz mountain people is not to be found in the mine but in the social security of miners and their families : In a deed dated 12/28/1260 Bishop John of Hildesheim assured the miners of the Society of St. John at the Rammelsberg in Goslar his protection to - a fraternity , " which is in the spirit of divine love in helping the poor and weak, who are haunted by the work of the aforementioned mountains of physical ailments and physical distress ." The Miners was born. In general, a certain sum of money was paid from the salary of the members (only on a voluntary basis, in later times the money was withheld from their wages equal). A miner was killed, he got a small part of his last salary as a charity, he died, his family was financially supported. In order to improve the general living conditions, created Captian Albert von dem Busche (1695-1731) 400 years after the founding of the miners mining checkout. Financed by voluntary levy on alcohol in the towns of the Upper Harz (previously tax-free through the mountain freedoms), mining shares were purchased by hopeful pits and thereby Zubußen be paid by the mining checkout. To obtain long-term jobs. Also been supported financially with the proceeds of the mining Checkout churches, schools, the Academy of Mining and other major projects.

8. Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen 8 Living and working conditions

All privileges granted in the mountain freedoms Despite handed the layer normal wage of a miner not to the maintenance of a family. This was v.a. because there between the mid-17th Century and the early 19th Century virtually no wage increases announced during the same time was noted a steady increase in price. Even if the women Kiepe winners (see below) were employed and worked with the children already 10 years (see below), the families were barely making ends meet. Since the mining authorities recognized the problem, they allowed the family fathers (not the bachelor), to drive additional side layers and the so-called Weil work (own laborers work) run. Working week of 60-80 hours were the result.

If you then consider that after this long work shifts more responsibilities at home on the mountain man waited ( woodcutting , hay , livestock care, gardening , etc.) , one can appreciate how hard was the struggle for survival be muss37 . Nevertheless, the miners were regarded as so-called " grand workers" over those who mined at its own expense , as privileged : they were entitled to so-called benefices - especially subsidized grain from the grain magazines and some consumer goods were cheaper because of the Harz tax exemption . The medical care was even free (see above) .

How do you look at the living conditions of a mining family in the 18th Present century ? Thanks to the description of C.W.J. Gatterer38 from 1792 , we know that only a fairly large room was on the lower floor of the house with a kitchen , where 2-4 families had to live together . Each family had in her room are part of a table and several chairs . Only this area had to be cleaned from them. On the first floor , and / or on the memory the bedrooms were . Very few families had beds , usually it was only straw . Quilts in the modern sense did not exist , we instead used work clothes to cover yourself . A pair of earthen pots, and bowls, plates and mugs ceramic formed the kitchenware .

8.1. Klimatische Bedingungen 8.1. Climatic conditions

"Agriculture is because of the cold and embroidered mountains not here" (Lord Chamberlain of pipe in 1739) 8. Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen 8 Living and working conditions

All privileges granted in the mountain freedoms Despite handed the layer normal wage of a miner not to the maintenance of a family. This was v.a. because there between the mid-17th Century and the early 19th Century virtually no wage increases announced during the same time was noted a steady increase in price. Even if the women Kiepe winners (see below) were employed and worked with the children already 10 years (see below), the families were barely making ends meet. Since the mining authorities recognized the problem, they allowed the family fathers (not the bachelor), to drive additional side layers and the so-called Weil work (own laborers work) run. Working week of 60-80 hours were the result.

If you then consider that after this long work shifts more responsibilities at home on the mountain man waited ( woodcutting , hay , livestock care, gardening , etc.) , one can appreciate how hard was the struggle for survival be muss37 . Nevertheless, the miners were regarded as so-called " grand workers" over those who mined at its own expense , as privileged : they were entitled to so-called benefices - especially subsidized grain from the grain magazines and some consumer goods were cheaper because of the Harz tax exemption . The medical care was even free (see above) .

How do you look at the living conditions of a mining family in the 18th Present century ? Thanks to the description of C.W.J. Gatterer38 from 1792 , we know that only a fairly large room was on the lower floor of the house with a kitchen , where 2-4 families had to live together . Each family had in her room are part of a table and several chairs . Only this area had to be cleaned from them. On the first floor , and / or on the memory the bedrooms were . Very few families had beds , usually it was only straw . Quilts in the modern sense did not exist , we instead used work clothes to cover yourself . A pair of earthen pots, and bowls, plates and mugs ceramic formed the kitchenware .

8.1. Klimatische Bedingungen 8.1. Climatic conditions

"Agriculture is because of the cold and embroidered mountains not here" (Lord Chamberlain of pipe in 1739) 8. Lebens- und Arbeitsbedingungen 8 Living and working conditions

All privileges granted in the mountain freedoms Despite handed the layer normal wage of a miner not to the maintenance of a family. This was v.a. because there between the mid-17th Century and the early 19th Century virtually no wage increases announced during the same time was noted a steady increase in price. Even if the women Kiepe winners (see below) were employed and worked with the children already 10 years (see below), the families were barely making ends meet. Since the mining authorities recognized the problem, they allowed the family fathers (not the bachelor), to drive additional side layers and the so-called Weil work (own laborers work) run. Working week of 60-80 hours were the result.

If you then consider that after this long work shifts more responsibilities at home on the mountain man waited ( woodcutting , hay , livestock care, gardening , etc.) , one can appreciate how hard was the struggle for survival be muss37 . Nevertheless, the miners were regarded as so-called " grand workers" over those who mined at its own expense , as privileged : they were entitled to so-called benefices - especially subsidized grain from the grain magazines and some consumer goods were cheaper because of the Harz tax exemption . The medical care was even free (see above) .

How do you look at the living conditions of a mining family in the 18th Present century ? Thanks to the description of C.W.J. Gatterer38 from 1792 , we know that only a fairly large room was on the lower floor of the house with a kitchen , where 2-4 families had to live together . Each family had in her room are part of a table and several chairs . Only this area had to be cleaned from them. On the first floor , and / or on the memory the bedrooms were . Very few families had beds , usually it was only straw . Quilts in the modern sense did not exist , we instead used work clothes to cover yourself . A pair of earthen pots, and bowls, plates and mugs ceramic formed the kitchenware .

8.1. Klimatische Bedingungen 8.1. Climatic conditions

"Agriculture is because of the cold and embroidered mountains not here" (Lord Chamberlain of pipe in 1739) The climate of the Upper Harz is rough: as the amount of precipitation are here two to three times as high as in the lowlands. The very snowy winter lasts up to 6 months with a mean annual temperature of just 6.5 ° C in Clausthal. St. Andrew Berg and Altenau have no distinct spring and autumn is usually unexpectedly in the winter über39.

Under such conditions, the wheat is excluded. Therefore, resin granaries were built with state-subsidized grain for the miners. The largest magazine was built in 1722 in Osterode (now town hall). The warehouse for the St. Andreas Berger was in Herzberg40. Nevertheless, the St. Andrew Berger should have tried to about 1624 grow crops. During the Thirty Years' War, as many oat fields were cultivated at the Clausthal high level that the mining authorities had prohibited the 1653 cereal production at 50 thalers punishment out of concern that the fieldwork could disadvantage the mining industry. 1674 had to abolish all plows within 14 days of the mountain men's vehicle. The harvest was not allowed to be introduced in infringement it was confiscated. Were hidden in a shed farm implements discovered, they had to be removed by the executioner. The coming to field crops in the resin external field people were arrested and fortgejagt41.

In the 18th Century there were further attempts of the miners to leave meadows converted to cropland . They needed acreage to come into the exploitative empty hours to make ends meet . Although those in charge of the Bureau of Mines in the second half of the 18th Century began rethinking , decided the courts usually still refused. Only under the French occupation (1806-1813) was the possibility of impunity to cultivate more land to va anzubauen.42 the potato

Now what was on the menu? In general, it was rye, wurden43 made of bread, barley grain . The introduction of the potato undemanding facilitated survival in the resin. Especially in the control record 1847 the potato crop saved the Upper Harz residents who could not pay the extremely more expensive bread and food prices . As a result, the Zellerfelder the city council successfully applied for the transfer of forest land to the poorer population as future Kartoffelacker44 :

"It is expected that the potato is coming back into shooting in this neighborhood. Since it the poor man, and especially the poor widow is not possible, however, to apply the ordinary land lease, ... we wear on it, verehrlicher magistrate would ask the high authority to issue larger Forstgrun as before, located as close as possible, the local poor population to to leave potato against cheaper forestry interest. "(Zellerfelder at the request of the city council, 1847).

Relic of potato cultivation is still the so-called Harz knee Rochester-food (half, fried in bacon and caraway potatoes).

In addition, but also fruits and vegetables were grown. Already Chamberlain of pipe mentioned in his "Curiosities of the Upper Harz" from 1739:

"The Andreas Berger residents testify in their gardens and in front of the mountain town of good white and brown coal, and have their food from grass growth and breeding"

Chamberlain of tube 1739

He added that currants , gooseberries and cherries were ripe , while - as in Clausthal - no plums, pears , apricots and grapes were growing . Another traveler , Thomas Schreiber , already introduced a few years ago found that cabbage, beets and carrots as " rarities and ornaments of resin Gardens" dienten45 .

A little strange acts of the action Thaler Hermann Claus Hey, who regretted in 1911 that there was no rhubarb due to lack of heat in the Upper Harz . To continue would have to Wolfenbüttler einspringen46 with her big rhubarb plantations. He further noted that it would also hapern the botanical teaching . Thus, the Upper Harz students usually stood helplessly in front of a corn field , because the learning of cereals in school würde47 considered "useless weighting of the curriculum ."

1792 saw C.W.J. Gatterer48 that meat and vegetables to the value of weekly earnings were cooked by a thaler and 24 pence for the entire week in a miner household Sundays. Since the food was brought once a week ( on Saturday ) on the Upper Harz , the food at the poor storage conditions of that time had to be processed immediately . Slightly better result saw the typical dish of Clausthal in a bourgeois household in 1891. Robert Biewend , a relative of originating from Clausthal physician and microbiologist Robert Koch described it as follows :

" In the morning we got brown bread without butter and a cup of exquisite Milk. The breakfast and afternoon black butter bread or dry bread with apples. At noon there was only two to three times a week meat, whose lack of other days was replaced by legumes or milk soup, buckwheat, rye or wheat porridge. Dinner was bread and butter with cheese, or bread with sweet milk, skimmed thick milk also often added to bread. White bread, there was only on Sunday morning. Sugar, coffee and tea we knew in name only ".49

Among the rights guaranteed in the mountain Freedoms of residents who were homeowners at the same time , the cattle belonged . The revenues that have been achieved by a cow , corresponded to the wage of a miner . However, only limited amounts of pasture ( forest and meadow pastures ) were available. Therefore set by the authorities early who got to keep that number of cattle . In a Berghauptmannsrescript of 173450 states:

1 Mount official and " Rath servant " was allowed to keep four piece Kuhvieh ; 2 Citizens and wealthy craftsmen every three pieces; 3 The rest of Mining and Metallurgy people like craftsmen every three. 4 But who did not have its own meadow wax is completely excluded from it.

Over time, most of the miners had come down to the household , so had no real property, which would be entitled to indoor housing . Nevertheless, they tried to maintain this necessary for survival for them extra income . The problem was v.a. the procurement of hay for the winter. Four Praktiken51 a bürgerten to : 1 Renting of meadows, 2 Purchase of hay from the local population, 3 Heuankauf for Foreign Affairs, 4 Heudiebstahl.

Only in the year 1821, the basic animal husbandry of Häuslingen was legalized by the authorities.

A particular annoyance - v.a. for forestry - was the attitude of Ziegen52 because they preferred to eat young tree shoots. The "poor man's cow" was given by impotent miners because their milk was supposed to counteract the symptoms of poisoning occur during smelting.

Already in 1673 put the General Forestry Department to Osterode and Clausthal fest53:

"Despite the regulations issued Mandata and the goats are not abolished, but their number has multiplied considerably and irresponsible. As a result ... all those people that keep milk and keep forming Kuhvieh could abolish their goats. The impotent but, like the old and weak people and the sick, it is allowed and permitted not to keep two goats and above. "

Goats had to be held together with pigs, because the population did not get permission for appointment of a goatherd.

Not only animals causing damage to the environment . Primarily it was the smelting of ore with its vapor , which destroyed the flora on a large scale . In 1883, Julius and Carl Schroeder Reuss wrote in her essay " The damage to the vegetation and the Upper Harz Cottage smoke damage ":

" Near the cottages there is initially an extensive Blössenterrain , which is completely without vegetation . At this closes an equal , passed with sparse grass and heather or individual Hardwood cripples , which according to the outskirts of the pelts to some softwood residue, dead or be joined by absterbend . "

Then there was the areal deforestation to get wood for both the support of the tunnel as well as fuel ( charcoal) for smelting . The result was a at a clearcut , the other a monoculture in the reforestation of the site with the still influential landscape , fast-growing spruce in place of the mixed forest endemic book . Until today the addition of the resin reservoirs are considered lead- burdened , triggered by the ore .

8.2. Frauenarbeit 8.2. women's work

As mentioned above , the miners alone could not feed their families . Underground women were not allowed to work , so had other possibilities are exhausted to sichern55 survival. As the food assistance locally was hardly possible , that meant the women that they are still strewn alongside the housework and child rearing in general all supply marches over with stones, broken by watercourses ways (in winter with ice and snow ) take into fertile Harz Foreland mussten56 . All support columns at Kiepe women , called popularly " Upper Harz camels ," dragged into panniers ( carrying baskets ) of the mountains bird cages , birds, lace , flax , etc. into the valley and brought vegetables (dry ), fruit, eggs , poultry, butter, nuts , bacon and honey back to the weekly markets of mining towns . Paths of up to 40 km in each direction , even up to Hanover , this was no exception. Not only food and gunpowder for blasting in mines or wool transported the women on her back. In addition, they collected wild berries , mushrooms, Pine cones and called Zackelholz for the kitchen stove. As a rule, they met during the walk knitting an.57

1850's working women in Germany

Abb. 13: li.: Kiepenfrau aus Sankt Andreasberg mit Vogelbauern, um 1900 , re.: Oberharzer Kiepenfrau mit Fladderhaube (um 1895)58 Figure 13: li:. Kiepe woman from St. Andrew mountain farmers with bird, 1900, re:. Oberharzer Kiepe woman with Fladderhaube (to 1895) 58

"Those who procrastinate the fruit of the plane in the mountains, they call the" Äppelfrahns "(the apples women), those who negotiate the vegetables are called" Hecker "(huckster). Even the messenger running in the mountains is almost entirely in the hands of these women, and also where the traveler or someone else has to transport something from one place to another, as is a patient woman or a girl, which is "aufhuckt". "59

(I’m sorry to put my comment in the middle here. I note the word Huckster. When I was a boy of about 16 I used to be a Huckster here in America. To me this meant pretty much the same as above. My job was with a man who drove a truck through the streets of town, and 2 boys went with him as he drove down the street. We would cry out as we walked, “Fresh Straberries, or Home grown potatoes, sweet peppers, red ripe tomatoes, or the like, and knock on doors as we went. I enjoyed the work and thought I was very well paid at the time.

Traditionally wore a Kiepe woman in summer turning a brown skirt with a blue-print apron, usually a gray blouse and a simple knitted shawl (Give), in which small children could be worn. Some wore heavy hiking boots, others had wooden shoes. In the winter, had a red headscarf worn so that they could be discovered in the snow after a fall faster - with a basket on the back of the sole up was virtually impossible. In summer, however, a dark scarf or a white "Fladderhaube" was born. Additionally protected against the winter cold a wide looped around the waist knitted cloth, known as the heart and soul. The skirts were fed and they wore thick knitted Strümpfe.60

An additional source of income, but after only to St. Andrew Hill and Clausthal migrated Andreas Berger Family Limited was the lace. The 16th Century in Annaberg-Buchholz, Barbara Uttmann as additional assistance for their Women miners imported hand came with the Erzgebirge miners in the Upper Harz.

"We exhort you as before, will ye with your citizenship Being fed than the mining willing, especially those who have many children that go either idle, or help destroy the Holt Zung to spoons and other commodities, or on the digester Banck beym lace-pillow sit " Mountain Town Council 165561

Mountain man.

619 two dealers are listed with lace and braids in a population register of St. Andrew Berg . Annually clapper goods should have been produced to the value of 2400 crowns in homework . The price per cubit was between 4 and 6-8 Gutegroschen penny . The mining office looked rather suspiciously mostly on these lace-making , yet often lacked the children that were needed for the Erzbrockensortieren . Nevertheless, the number of " billets maids " who were trained in a lace school increased . Middle of the 18th Century was their number at 47 After the fire of 1796 helped the lace , pay off the debt of the residents. Supports manual workers were sent for from the Hanoverian King George V , the Danish experts to increase the quality of the St. Andrew Berger tips yet . The Hanoverian royal court was also because the main customers of these quality products. Many families also flat waste brought here the so-called Hedekerl (flat beam) from the Harz Mountains , were spun into yarn.

8.3. Kinderarbeit 8.3. child labor

Of 10 Age of the miner's sons had to contribute to the family livelihood. In twelve-hour shifts they worked as Pochknaben or stockpile boys in mineral processing, regardless of the season. A clear description of the situation of boys offers CWJ Gatterer 179263:

" In general, the Upper Harz healthy, robust people , of thick, mostly untersetztem physique, and fresh in appearance , so they do the hardest work and can tolerate all kinds of hardships. For the most part, the children already generated from healthy strong parents bey the simple fare brought up , and stopped the male sex itself already from their tenderest youth , as Puchknaben to stringent work. Mostly these Puchjungen have a very fresh , lively lively reputation. The temperament of the Upper Harz is sanguine , however, the Lower Harz is phlegmatic, choleric and dabey in case of need ... On the education of children the most part used the common Harz so few trouble than costs . Good manners can give them the parents , the less beybringen because they do not possess , and then the male children are also just around the time when they needed the most breeding, from the day of the parents. Because if the boy is hardly 9 to 10 years old, so he comes to the sour and strong work to Puchwerk is Puchknabe and must now earn his piece of bread itself, which is certainly a considerable support for the parents ... but his body is not already extremely hardy only through this difficult job , but also very strict , often cruel treatment of the parents at home , and bey the work itself through the needful from time to time Vogelbols [ whip ] . This Puchknaben need before break of day , regardless of the weather , seasons and ways to work. Except for a bad shirt and a thin Puffjacke they have no more cover, and so they must usually stand with bare feet, dirty and wet in places from morning till evening vier vier clock and clock work. Their food bey work is certainly as easy as just always possible, because pure water, which swells anywhere near, makes, along with dry bread, their whole meal out of what they have Frey hour ... Although Puchjungen have the evening every day to four hours in a religion, but as they had just departed from the strict need work, so this is bey teaching naturally so little attention to expect as a benefit. The female children ... (do) usually nothing but laze around or beg, and how much money they could earn by not spinning, knitting, sewing and the like? They would thus be held on the safest and best way of its many excesses. "

In defense of the girls should be noted that they were used together with their little brothers when Vogelbauerbau (see below). The boys were used to transport wood, charcoal and ore eingesetzt.64Der early entry meant that the school knowledge is usually limited to reading, writing and knowledge of the catechism to work. However, the (theoretical) possibility would have been to make the high school.

In defense of the girls should be noted that they were used together with their little brothers when Vogelbauerbau (see below). The boys were used to transport wood, charcoal and ore eingesetzt.64Der early entry meant that the school knowledge is usually limited to reading, writing and knowledge of the catechism to work. However, the (theoretical) possibility would have been to make the high school.

8.4. Vogelzucht65 8.4. Vogelzucht65

"The tone in the same form rollers, cluck, hollow pipes and Koller tours in immediate succession ... This special character of the song is but in a race its limit, and the singing of the other races differs so much from the fact that you hardly believe in common descent want. One might be tempted to keep the common German canary for example, with his sharp, shrill, little coherent Suggest a degenerate tree pipit. No trace of roles and hollow pipes, as they are almost all resin bird own, no Koller, at best, a barely recognizable Glucker. " W. Böcker 1886 on the "Harzer Roller"

As in all other mining regions also, birds were taken to the mines in order to observe their behavior based on the oxygen content in the underground can resin. This began the Harz wild birds (blackbirds, finches, bullfinches). As the bird belonged to their mountain hunting freedoms, they began very early, as well as live birds killed in the towns of the Harz mountains to sell. The birds were transported in specially prepared wooden farmers, of which up to 180 pieces on a reef could be accommodated. Current up to 100 pounds heavy supporting frames were worn by Reffträgern to Lübeck, Hamburg and Holland. Already for the year 1619 are listed in St. Andrew Berg 2 fowler and 24 Reffträger. Really famous are the Upper Harz for the so-called "Harzer Roller" - a canary by special sound effects (roles and hollow pipes) distinguished. Its breeding and its sale could bring in an annual sideline of 70-80 Reichstalern. Was traded only between November and February. Probably the canaries met with miners from the Tyrol, around 1720 their home Imst left in the resin. However, this assumption can not be really busy. In the middle of the 19th Century was engaged in the breeding bird half the population of St. Andrew Berger (total 350 families). Each year, approximately 34000-36000 birds bred the erbrachten.67 per family an annual perquisite of 315-370 Mark

Construction of wooden bird houses (Vuchelheisle) was also working at home as a sideline. Especially children were busy. Up to 70 birdhouses were a month per family came here abgeliefert.68 zustande.69 an annual perquisite of about 68 Mark

9. Auswanderung70 9 Auswanderung70 (my translation, Auswander=those people who left for foreign countries MS)

Over the centuries there have been waves of emigration from the resin. Thus, from the 18th Century several - partly state-supported, partly by King banned emigration - handed: In 1720, the former Clausthal clerk wild Hagen kept without the permission of the British King George I (Elector of Hanover) have been obtained, 60 Harz against a signing bonus of 2 thalers to Scotland. Goslar from three cars they drove on to Brunswick and on to the embarkation to Bremen. King George did indeed issue an arrest warrant against wild Hagen, his could no longer get hold of. So instead he issued on 5 October 1720 an edict was where the "carrying away of people from the resin" prohibited and punishable. On the other hand, allowed the king that returnees unpunished could get work again.

The situation was out of hand at about the same time emigration Upper Harz miners to the copper and tin mines in Cornwall. Here is an approval of the mining authority was present.

Favorable conditions for the Harz miners who should enjoy all the liberties mining, also ensure that the mining authorities granted permission to emigrate in the Norwegian county of Jarlsberg in 1737 ensured. At that time many people were in the Harz mountain located so that the mining office recorded the positive emigration, travel expenses approved and adopted any debts of the miners.

Already in Hamelin ended due to lack of onward travel options to Rotterdam for about 50 Harz emigration to the English colony of New Scotland in 1751. With 8 thalers (father), 5 thalers (boy) and 3 crowns (Puchknaben) Reisebeisteuer from Equipped Mining Office, they had 50 acres in Nova Scotia to receive land, its ten years free of taxes and should receive free maintenance including food for a year. Only 10 actually came to Nova Scotia, where the conditions were so bad that they fled in 1753 from the colony back to the resin. Better ran about the same time emigration to South Carolina and Pennsylvania, although some immigrants groups had already search in Philadelphia because of lack of bread work.

In the 19th Century it came through better medical care to a sharp decline of the high infant and child mortality. This resulted in a population and thus income workers, the state authorities were trying to churn through subsidized regulieren.71 In the 1840s and 1850s also went back to the Upper Harz mining, so that many miners were forced to emigrate overseas.

1825/26 was the target , especially Mexico with its rich silver mines. After a 53- day journey from Hamburg many started in the Santa Ana - hut in the Sierra of Oaxaca . Job prospects were brilliant , many went on to become senior officials , such as K. Bönighausen , son of Zellerfelder Bergphysikus ' , who brought it to the upper hut Director . Also popular was Brazil , v.a. Blumenau . 1851 took place on an expedition to Peru . Texas was also a popular destination.

The bulk of the Harz was , however - v.a. after the great fire of Clausthal 1844 - to the copper mines in the newly established British colony Adelaide in South Australia . Here is the working and living conditions were extremely favorable , as many emigrants wrote home . So many of them animated to move afterwards . However, many of the emigrants escaped while their native obligations and secretly disappeared . Due to heavy complaints of the aggrieved population , the Mining Office 1846 saw forced to issue the injunction that every emigrant have this be publicized 4 weeks before departure. only against Submission of this notice was given of wishing to leave his passport from the Authority issued. A total of twelve organized tours with over 1,100 emigrants to South Australia took place in the period 1848 to in 1854. By the state about 72,000 dollars were invested: these were among others the full tasting of travelers as well as for the Harz free medicine in case of illness paid. Against the payment of three valleys were mattresses, blankets provided, cutlery and cookware tinny.

In a bankruptcy, HOWEVER, the migration to Ramsbeck in Westphalia ended in fall, in 1854. A private company wanted to mine coal there. Despite the warnings of the Harz mountain captain, Already knew who did it was a stock market swindle, about 300 miners threw down her work and went to Westphalia. A few months later she came back completely impoverished. Since They had incurred the wrath of the Authorities, but theywere not included in the miners and had no more to claimsoft Their benefices. They only received in 1863 from King George V of Hanover by grace Their privileges back.