Witchcraft Trials of Scotland: Tracing the Roots

Date: About 1000 to about 1736
Location: Scotland and Europe

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Contents 1 Introduction 2 Collaboration 3 What is a Witch? 4 More Women Than Men 5 Witch-Hunting 6 Torture During Interrogation 7 Burning at the Stake 8 Executions of Children 9 Witchcraft in Antiquity (prior to 500) 10 Significant Trends, Medieval Period (500-1500) 11 Significant Trends, Early Modern Period (1500-1800) 12 Sources

Introduction

This is a study by the Scotland Project Witchcraft Team. We aim to trace the precursor events that led to the witchcraft trials in Scotland during the late 1500s and early 1600s. By achieving this objective, we seek to enhance historical knowledge to support the Scotland Project's mission to become a knowledge hub for Scotland genealogical research, ultimately increasing membership engagement and understanding of this critical aspect of Scotland's past.

All pre-1700 certified members of the Scotland Project Witchcraft Team are invited to participate in this research by updates here. Not a member yet? Contact Team Co-leader Amy or Jen.

(Kindly prioritize the use of primary sources over secondary sources like Wikipedia when providing updates.)

Collaboration

The exploration of the history of witchcraft persecutions sparks fervent debates due to numerous attributions, ranging from religious and societal factors to medical and cultural influences. Despite our best efforts, reaching a unanimous conclusion on the causes remains unlikely. As we delve into these sensitive issues together, let’s keep in mind our Honor Code’s emphasis on courtesy and understanding, especially in the face of inevitable misunderstandings.

What is a Witch?

While the belief in witchcraft dates back to ancient times, with examples like the mašmašu in Mesopotamia (3200 BCE), ^[1] the Witch of Endor in the Hebrew Bible (1150 BCE), ^[2] and the strix or stregae in Ancient Rome (300 BCE). ^[3][4]

According to the Malleus Maleficarum, “The great persecutions of sorcery that lasted from the fifteenth until the early seventeenth centuries were based upon a new notion of sorcery that can be termed “satanism” (or “diabolism”). This view saw the supposed “witch” as participating in a malevolent society presided over by Satan himself and dedicated to the infliction of malevolent acts of sorcery (maleficia) on others. This new conception is known in modern scholarship as the “elaborated concept of witchcraft,” which is characterized by six basic beliefs about the activities of those considered guilty of this form of sorcery: (1) A pact entered into with the Devil (and concomitant apostasy from Christianity), (2) Sexual relations with the Devil, (3) Aerial flight for the purpose of attending: (4) An assembly presided over by Satan himself (at which initiates entered into the pact, and incest and promiscuous sex were engaged in by the attendees), (5) The practice of maleficent magic, (6) The slaughter of babies.” ^[5] It is important to emphasize that the term "witch" is used to refer to individuals who were suspected or accused of practicing witchcraft. However, in modern understanding, there is no historical evidence to support the existence of actual witches. ^[6][7]

More Women Than Men

Le Sabbat des sorcières.

In Scotland, the common perception of women was closely linked to witchcraft, associating them with characteristics and behaviors seen as evidence of sorcery. They were often viewed as argumentative, prone to cursing, and involved in the mysterious realms of birth and death. This strong association between witches and women was particularly evident in cases of magical cursing.

However, not all aspects of women's lives directly correlated with witchcraft. While women were seen as sexual beings, this connection did not align closely with the depiction of demonic witches in folklore. Village witches, for instance, were not typically sexually active like the stereotypical witches portrayed in stories.

Despite this, the persecution of witches in Scotland targeted specific types of women, including those considered quarrelsome, sexually transgressive, or superstitious. While some men, like witch-priests or werewolves, were also targeted, their numbers were relatively smaller.

During the early modern period in Scotland, male witches were exceptional, whereas female witches were considered more commonplace. This disparity meant that if you were a man, you could be relatively confident that witches were other people, and accusations of witchcraft were limited to specific categories. However, as a woman in Scotland during that time, there was a constant sense of uncertainty, as any woman could easily be accused of being a witch.

In the context of Scotland, the intensity of the witch-hunt from 1561 to 1727 is evident, with a significant number of people suspected and accused of witchcraft. Remarkably, 84% of those accused were women, surpassing the European average of 80%. This highlights the extreme persecution of accused witches in Scotland, and its execution rate of accused witches per capita ranks among the highest in Europe. ^[8][9][10]

Witch-Hunting

Scotland experienced an intense concentration of witch-hunting from the early modern period, with notable prominence in northern Europe. Despite being one of the few “Extreme' states,” Scotland saw considerable witch-hunting, with a significant number of people suspected and accused of witchcraft. This focus on Scotland highlights its exceptional role in the history of witch-hunting, despite the broader trends in German-speaking lands and nearby French-speaking regions. The intensity of witch-hunting in Scotland makes it a notable case study in the historical context of witchcraft persecution. ^[11][12]

Torture During Interrogation

Defendants were often interrogated under torture, and if found guilty, they faced punishment and had their property requisitioned to cover legal and prison costs. The execution of torture involved the inquisitor, a doctor, a secretary, and the executioner, applying the methods to the naked prisoner (excluding women). The Church's Bull Ad Extirpanda in 1252 allowed limited use of torture, always with a doctor present to avoid endangering life. The methods included strappado (lifting the victim by tied arms), the rack (pressing the prisoner on a frame), and the water cure (pouring water down the throat). The Catholic Church maintained that torture was only used exceptionally and the inquisitorial procedure was regulated. Torture could not endanger life or cause the loss of a limb, and it was only applied once if the defendant seemed to be lying. The Church did not endorse all civil methods of torture, and defendants had to be prosecuted for serious crimes with well-founded suspicions of guilt. ^[13][14]

Burning at the Stake

During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church saw widespread use of cruel punishments, including the death penalty. Burning at the stake, inherited from ancient Rome, was a particularly gruesome form of punishment. European laws permitted burning at the stake for unbelievers, heretics, witches, and sorcerers. Scotland witnessed a fervent wave of witchcraft prosecutions, leading to numerous victims. However, the Church itself did not carry out capital punishment. Clerics were forbidden from shedding blood, and the Church's role was limited to identifying offenses. The decision and execution of punishments, including capital ones, were the responsibility of the civil authorities. In some cases, particularly during the witch trials, it was common for the condemned individuals to be strangled or hanged before being burned at the stake. ^{[15][16][17][18]}

Executions of Children

In Scotland, there were distressing instances of children being accused and punished for witchcraft. The notorious North Berwick witch trials that took place between 1590 and 1592 saw children, (* source needed), including those as young as seven years old, facing accusations of being witches and participating in alleged acts of sorcery.

Adding to the tragic treatment of children during this period, the Pendle witch trials in England in 1612 saw children as young as nine among those accused and put to death for witchcraft. Similarly, the case of Anne Hauldecoeur, a seven-year-old girl convicted of witchcraft in the Spanish Netherlands in 1614, experienced years of imprisonment before her execution at the age of twelve in 1619.

The Würzburg panic of 1627-1629 serves as a poignant example, where 41 children were executed alongside 119 adults. Another distressing case occurred in Franche-Comté in 1629, where two child witches, aged seven and nine, were convicted alongside their parents and forced to participate in their parents' punishment by throwing sticks onto the pyre.

The 'Zauberer-Jackl' trials in the Salzburg region between 1675 and 1690 were notorious, resulting in the execution or death in custody of 124 individuals. Significantly, a significant number of those executed or who died in custody were boys and young men between the ages of ten and twenty.

These harrowing cases illustrate the extreme and unjust consequences of the witch-hunting frenzy, extending its tragic impact to children as well, not only in Scotland but across various regions throughout history. ^[19]

Witchcraft in Antiquity (prior to 500)

Witchcraft in antiquity refers to the practice and belief in magical and occult powers that existed in ancient civilizations. Various ancient cultures, such as the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians, held beliefs in witchcraft and the existence of individuals who could harness supernatural forces for both beneficial and harmful purposes.

In these ancient societies, witchcraft was often associated with rituals, spells, potions, divination, and communication with spirits or deities. While there were individuals who practiced witchcraft and were considered skilled in magic, there were also negative connotations associated with witches, as they were sometimes seen as threats to society and accused of causing harm or misfortune.

Witchcraft in antiquity was a complex and diverse phenomenon, encompassing a range of practices, beliefs, and social attitudes. It played a significant role in the spiritual, religious, and cultural fabric of ancient civilizations, shaping beliefs about the supernatural and the forces that governed the world. ^[20]

Significant Trends, Medieval Period (500-1500)

Church Prosecutions of of Heretics, Europe (1000-1580). The Church's prosecutions of heretics had far-reaching implications. It bolstered religious authority by enforcing conformity to Church teachings. These actions also influenced political power, as exemplified by the Albigensian Crusade, which allowed secular powers to assert control over regions and resources. The cultural impact was significant, erasing alternative beliefs and traditions, such as the loss of Cathar practices. Moreover, the establishment of the Inquisition as a religious court system solidified control and further enforced orthodoxy. ^[21][22]

Canon Episcopi (906). A medieval church document that addresses the issue of witchcraft and challenges the belief in the reality of witches and their ability to perform supernatural acts. The Canon Episcopi argues that such beliefs are rooted in superstition and should not be given credence by the Church. It served as an influential text in shaping the Church's stance on witchcraft during the medieval period. ^[23]

Orléans heresy, Orléans, France (1022), heretics burned alive. Robert II of France and the Council of Orléans charged and sentenced a group of Cathari heretics to death for their defiance of the Church's teachings. They were excommunicated, and except for two members, confined to a cottage outside the city walls and burned to death. This first burning of heretics ordered by Church authorities is a grim example of the Church's response to individuals deemed heretical during the medieval period. ^[24][25][26]

Catharism heresy, Languedoc region, France (1178). Catharism was a Christian heretical sect that emerged in the medieval period in the Languedoc region of France, characterized by dualism and the rejection of traditional Christian teachings. The Church responded to the threat posed by Catharism by mounting a collective defense against such significant challenges to orthodoxy. Pope Alexander III dispatched Cardinal-Legate Peter to Toulouse, France, exemplifying the Church's determination to uphold orthodoxy, centralize heresy suppression, intensify persecution, and collaborate with secular authorities. ^{[27][28][29][25]}

Ad abolendam, Pope Lucius III (1184). A papal bull aimed to abolish heresy, strengthen the Roman Church's authority, and listed heretical sects such as Cathars, Humiliati, Waldensians, Arnoldists, and Josephines. It imposed excommunication on heretics and their supporters, and those accused of heresy faced penalties from secular authorities. Bishops were instructed to find heretics, and the public was required to report heretical activity. It's important to note that this bull did not establish the Inquisition; that happened later in 1234 under Pope Gregory IX. ^[30]

Episcopal Inquisition, France, Italy, Spain, and Germany (1184–1230s). The Episcopal Inquisition was an effort by the Catholic Church to target heretical Christian groups using interrogation and punishment. It was later replaced by the centralized Papal Inquisition. Pope Lucius III's papal bull, "Ad Abolendam," authorized the Episcopal Inquisition, granting bishops the power to investigate and punish heretics. This paved the way for the Papal Inquisition, strengthening the Church's authority and promoting doctrinal purity in the medieval period. ^[31]

Vergentis in senium, Pope Innocent III (1199). A bull issued to the city of Viterbo, warning that heresy would be treated as a crime equivalent to treason. Introducing the death penalty, it implemented the Church's efforts to maintain orthodoxy and suppress dissenting religious views during that time period. ^[32]

Albigensian Crusade, Languedoc region, France (1209–1229), 1,000,000 persons killed. Simon de Montfort led the Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) against the Cathars, a religious sect in southern France with differing beliefs from the Catholic Church. Pope Innocent III aimed to eradicate this heresy and regain Catholic control. With the support of northern French nobility, Simon de Montfort led the campaign, capturing cities like Béziers and Carcassonne. The massacre in Béziers resulted in the deaths of thousands, regardless of their religious affiliation. The Crusade weakened the Cathars but persecution by the Inquisition continued, resulting in the execution of heretics in the region. ^[33]

Fourth Lateran Council, Pope Innocent III (1215). Canon 8 laid the groundwork for procedural rules used by later popes in trying heretics in ecclesiastical courts. While Innocent did not establish the Inquisition, this canon established norms utilized in inquisitorial courts. The Fourth Lateran Council also reaffirmed the Church's stance on heresy and emphasized the duty of bishops to eradicate heretical movement, but also condemned various superstitious practices, including certain forms of witchcraft and divination. ^[34][35][36]

Papal Inquisition (1230s). The Papal Inquisition, or Medieval Inquisition, was a 13th-century system of Church courts aimed at combating heresy and enforcing religious orthodoxy. Formalized by Pope Gregory IX, it empowered inquisitors to investigate and prosecute heretics, employing various methods to suppress unorthodox beliefs. The Inquisition operated alongside secular authorities, holding significant power and influencing European society for centuries. ^[37][38]

Inquisitor Konrad von Marburg is assassinated, Marburg, Germany (1233). A medieval German priest and nobleman known for his involvement in the suppression of heresy and his zealous defense of the church. According to historical accounts, he was known for his harsh and unjust methods, often accepting accusations without proper evidence. Pope Gregory IX granted him special privileges in investigating heresy, but his reputation as an overly harsh judge spread throughout Europe. Konrad von Marburg met his demise in 1233 when he was attacked and killed by several knights, along with his assistant Gerhard Lutzelkolb. After his death, Pope Gregory declared him a defender of the Christian faith. ^[39][40]

Ad extirpanda, by Pope Innocent IV (1252). Though technically an imperial decree, this decretal authorized the use of torture in the Inquisition's investigations of heresy. ^[41]

Jacques de Molay

Knights Templar are Destroyed, France (1307). Under pressure from Philip IV of France, Pope Clement V issued a papal bull commanding the arrest of the Knights Templar and seizure of their properties. The Templars were accused of secret rituals, homosexuality, denial of Christ, and idol worship. As a result, they were dissolved, their assets confiscated, and subjected to torture for coerced confessions. In 1314, Jacques de Molay and Geoffroi de Charney, leaders of the Templars, were burned at the stake by King Philip IV as relapsed heretics. ^[42][43]

Vox in excelso, Pope Clement V (1312). This decretal officially disbanded the Knights Templar, an order accused of heresy and other alleged crimes. ^[44]

Practical inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis, (Practical investigation of heretical corruption), Bernard Gui (1323). This manual for inquisitors provided guidelines and instructions for carrying out the inquisitorial process in dealing with heretical practices. ^[45][46][47]

Super illius specula, Pope John XXII (1326). This decretal condemned sorcery and prohibited the practice of magic. ^[48]

Hundred Years War, England, France, (1337-1453). A prolonged conflict between England and France over territorial control and rival claims to the thrones. England had military advantages with victories at Poitiers, Crécy, and Agincourt, while mercenaries added to the destruction. The war's devastation and instability may have contributed to the rise of witch hunts. Joan of Arc, who helped the French cause, was accused of witchcraft. ^[49]

The Black Death (1347-1359). A deadly plague that swept through Europe, causing the death of a significant portion of the population. This catastrophe helped spur societal changes and the rise of modernity. Some people blamed witches for the plague and subsequent outbreaks of disease over the following centuries. This led to widespread witch-hunting and persecution. ^[50]

The Little Ice Age (1350-1850). had a profound impact on witch-hunting. Cooling temperatures posed challenges for agriculture, leading to crop failures, food shortages, and economic hardships that created fear and uncertainty. As a result, witch-hunts gained momentum as people sought to blame witches for the changing climate and associated disasters. This belief in witches as scapegoats was fueled by the idea that they caused misfortunes and crop failures through their alleged association with dark forces. ^[51]

Directorium inquisitorum, (Directory for Inquisitors), Nicolau Eymeric (1376). This manual served as a guidebook for inquisitors, offering instructions and procedures to follow in their work of investigating and prosecuting heresy. ^[52]

The Renaissance (1400-1600). An ntellectual revolution that emphasized the study of ancient Greek and Roman authors. Despite this, it is ironic that the period also saw the intensification of witch hunts, as some writers justified the persecution of alleged witches. ^[53]

Inquisition Targeted Witchcraft and Jews, Duchy of Savoy, Holy Roman Empire (1409). In 1409, Pope Alexander V expressed concern about objectionable practices and sects in the Duchy of Savoy. Witchcraft trials were prevalent in the region, reflecting wider European trends. Accused individuals faced investigations, interrogations, and often execution. The Pope's letter mentions Christians and Jews involved in sorcery, seen as corrupting the Christian population. It emphasizes the Church's role in combating heresy and granting authority to the Pope and Inquisition to suppress religious groups contrary to Christianity. The Pope specifically refers to "perfidious Jews" alongside relapsing Christians. ^[54][55]

Church accused Waldensian heretics of sorcery, Lyon, Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles (1430). In the 1430s, Waldensians faced accusations of attending 'synagogues' and practicing magic. The persecution escalated, labeling them as diabolic witches engaged in Satan worship and sorcery. Through coercive interrogation and torture, confessions were obtained, confessing relationships with the devil, obscene acts, denial of God, and desecration of holy objects. The notion of a diabolic 'synagogue' intensified the horror, incorporating anti-heretical elements like orgies, infanticide, and cannibalism. This shift marked a transition in the Church's persecution, depicting heretics as deviating from Christian doctrine while also engaging in sorcery and having connections to Satan. ^[56][25]

A Report, Hans Fründ, Lucerne, Switzerland (1430-1435). Areport detailing recent witchcraft trials in the Valais, a neighboring Swiss canton. These trials, which began in 1428, originally focused on harmful magic. However, Fründ's account embellished the proceedings, depicting them as part of a demonic sect engaged in terrifying rituals. Fründ's report heightened the narrative surrounding these trials, contributing to the portrayal of an alleged sinister witchcraft sect and perpetuating beliefs about witchcraft during that time period. ^[57]

The Council of Basel (1431-1439). Asignificant ecumenical council that aimed to reform the Church and address internal issues. It covered various topics, including church governance, heresy, and theological issues related to demons, supernatural powers, and magic. However, while these discussions were tangentially connected to beliefs associated with witchcraft, the council did not explicitly address witchcraft as a distinct topic. Nevertheless, the council's reforms and deliberations contributed to the broader context of religious and intellectual developments during that period. ^[58][59]

Errores Gazariorum (The Errors of the Heretics), Ponce Feugeyron, western Alps and Savoy area (1435-1437). Feugeyron, a Franciscan inquisitor most likely authored this anonymous tract, which discussed the errors of heretics and their beliefs. A revised version of the Errores was written in or after 1438, which included an account of a trial conducted during that time period. Feugeyron's writings shed light on the activities of the inquisition and the persecution of heretics during that era. ^[60]

Ut Magorum et Maleficorum Errores (The Errors of the Magicians and Witches), Claude Tholosan, Briançon, Dauphiné, France (1436). A secular magistrate wrote this work. Tholosan had tried and executed individuals whom he believed to be part of a new "sect of diabolical witches." The majority of those accused and put to death were women. Tholosan's work and actions reflect the prevailing beliefs and persecution of witches during that time period. ^[60]

Formicarius (The Ants' Nest), Johannes Nider, Basel, Switzerland (1436-1437). A Dominican prior iwrote a work with a satirical and moralizing perspective on human society and included a section dedicated to the subject of witchcraft. Nider's writings on witchcraft were highly influential, shaping perceptions and understanding of witchcraft. ^[60][59]

Le Champion des Dames (The Defender of Ladies), Martin Le Franc (1440-1442. a French poet and humanist who served as the secretary to the Duke of Savoy, wrote a long poem, including a section specifically criticizing women who became witches. This section of the poem took a negative stance towards women associated with witchcraft. ^[60]

Invention of the Printing Press (c. 1450). increased literacy by making more books available. However, it also led to the publication of witch hunting manuals and other texts that intensified the witch hunts of the time. ^[61]

The Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834). was an investigative judicial system established to ensure the orthodoxy of Jewish and Muslim converts to Christianity. It conducted secret proceedings, and thousands of victims, often Jewish and Muslim converts, were executed in public burnings called autos-da-fe. However, the Inquisition had minimal involvement in witchcraft cases, which were primarily handled by secular courts or local authorities. ^[62]

Summis desiderantes affectibus, Pope Innocent VIII (1484). A papal bull that acknowledged the existence of witchcraft and authorized the Inquisition to investigate and prosecute witches. ^[63][64]

Church authorized the Inquisition to prosecute witches, Germany, Austria (1484). In the late Middle Ages, witchcraft, encompassing the misuse of Church rituals, sacramental violation, and alleged sexual relations with demons, became punishable under both secular and canon law. By 1484, the popular image of witches as nocturnal, sexually promiscuous servants of Satan engaged in various evil activities was firmly established and persisted for centuries. In December of that year, Pope Innocent VIII's papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus authorized two inquisitors, Heinrich Kramer (Institoris) and Jacob Sprenger, to identify, imprison, and prosecute witches in southwestern Germany and parts of Austria. This historical development reveals the growing association between heresy and witchcraft, leading to the expanded scope of accusations and further demonization and persecution of individuals labeled as heretics.. ^[65][63]

Inter sollicitudines, Pope Innocent VIII (1487). This decretal addressed the spread of witchcraft and heretical practices, calling for the persecution and punishment of witches. ^[66]

Malleus Maleficarum

Malleus maleficarum, (Hammer of Witches), Heinrich Institoris (Heinrich Kramer) (1487)

“…deluded statements of the Malleus Malificarum, ‘certain abominations are committed by the lowest orders, from which the higher orders are precluded on account of the nobility of their natures’” ^[67]

A significant historical document. Attached to it is a papal endorsement, the bull of Innocent VIII, Summis desiderantes affectibus, granting authority to identify, imprison, and prosecute accused witches. This treatise became a handbook for witch-hunters, influencing inquisitors, priests, ministers, kings, parliaments, judges, and executioners across various witch trials. The consequences of this influential work were catastrophic, resulting in widespread persecution and the loss of countless lives during this dark period of history by its: ^{[68][69][70][71]}

• Influence on Witch Hunts: The book had a profound impact on the witch-hunting phenomenon that swept across Europe during the late medieval and early modern periods. Its systematic approach to identifying, prosecuting, and eliminating witches provided a framework for witch trials and fueled the widespread fear and persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft.
• Justification for Witch Persecution: The "Malleus Maleficarum" served as a justification for the Church and secular authorities to engage in witch trials and executions. It provided theological and legal arguments, reinforcing the belief that witchcraft was a real and dangerous threat to society. This text played a significant role in shaping the perception and treatment of individuals accused of witchcraft.
• Gendered Impact: The book contributed to the gendered nature of witch hunts, as it portrayed women as particularly susceptible to practicing witchcraft. The "Malleus Maleficarum" perpetuated harmful stereotypes and prejudices against women, leading to the disproportionate targeting and persecution of women during the witch trials.
• Enduring Influence: Despite its controversial content and eventual discrediting, the "Malleus Maleficarum" remained influential for centuries. It continued to be cited by witch hunters and inquisitors, perpetuating the belief in witches and contributing to the long-lasting legacy of witchcraft trials.

The French Invasion of Italy (1494). initiated a prolonged period of warfare and foreign occupations in Italy. The resulting political instability and ongoing conflicts may have contributed to witch hunts. ^[72]

European Syphilis Epidemic (1495-1600). The outbreak of syphilis in Europe during the late 15th and 16th centuries is believed to have been introduced to Europe from the Americas during the Age of Exploration, and its rapid spread had significant social, cultural, and medical consequences. The epidemic caused fear and confusion among the population, leading to stigmatization and blame on various groups, including suspected witches, exacerbating the witch-hunting phenomenon during that time. ^[73]

Significant Trends, Early Modern Period (1500-1800)

The Reformation (1517-1559). led to the division between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Both groups participated in witch persecution, but accusations were rarely directed at each other. The belief in witchcraft and the practice of witch hunts persisted despite religious reforms. ^[74][75]

Hapsburgs surpressed religious dissent, The Netherlands, Emperor Charles V (1520). The Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain engaged in the Wars of Charles V, battling against Luther and the Protestants, the Turks, and France. His Carolina Law Code (1532) provided a legal basis for jurisprudence but included provisions that contributed to the cruelty of the German witch hunts, such as allowing torture and punishing witchcraft only if it resulted in someone's death. ^[76]

Persecution of Anabaptists (1520-1560). faced persecution from both Protestants and Roman Catholics in Western Europe. Despite being persecuted themselves, Anabaptists did not typically participate in the witch hunts that were prevalent during that time. ^[77]

The English Reformation (1534-1559). was initiated by Henry VIII in his quest to marry Anne Boleyn. This religious movement resulted in the separation of the Church of England from the authority of the pope. Following the establishment of the new church, some English church leaders embraced witch hunting. The English Reformation was later solidified and completed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, Henry VIII's daughter with Anne Boleyn.

English Witchcraft Act of 1542 enacted death penalty. The first anti-witchcraft law in England was the Witchcraft Act of 1542, enacted during King Henry VIII's reign. It criminalized various witchcraft practices and imposed the death penalty for those convicted of using witchcraft to harm others. This law marked the beginning of a series of witchcraft-related legislation in England, eventually replaced by the Witchcraft Act of 1735. ^[78]

The Holy Office, also called the Roman Inquisition (1542-1965). was established during the Reformation to combat Protestantism. It conducted secret investigations and looked into cases of witchcraft. Unlike other witch hunts, it employed a relatively milder approach, with moderate use of torture and the death penalty. After the eighteenth century, the Holy Office shifted its focus and used more peaceful means to enforce Roman Catholicism. It ceased hunting witches and its activities evolved over time. ^[79]

The Scottish Witchcraft Act (1563). defined witchcraft as a criminal offense in Scotland. Enacted during the reign of King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England), the act aimed to identify and prosecute persons accused of witchcraft and established severe penalties, including death. ^[80][81][82]

The Geneva Bible (1570s). was the first Scottish printed Bible. It included passages like Exodus 22:18, which states "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live," and Leviticus 20:27, which prescribed death by stoning for those practicing divination or soothsaying. These verses contributed to the perception and treatment of witches during that time, aligning with the prevailing beliefs and laws regarding witchcraft. ^[83][84]

De la démonomanie des sorciers

De la démonomanie des sorciers, (Of the Demon-mania of the Sorcerers), Jean Bodin (1580). Written by a renowned French jurist and political philosopher of the 16th century, this book delves into the intricate subjects of witchcraft and demonic possession. It provides a comprehensive exploration of these phenomena from both legal and philosophical standpoints, expanding the understanding and interpretation of witchcraft during that era. Bodin's work played a significant role in reinforcing the prevailing belief that witchcraft posed a real and perilous threat to society, fueling the widespread witch trials and persecutions of the time. Furthermore, his meticulous legal analysis left a lasting impact on subsequent works on witchcraft and contributed to the development of early modern demonology.^[85][86]

Role of James VI, King of Scotland (1589-1597). James VI's visit to Denmark in 1589 heightened his interest in witchcraft due to the prevalent witch-hunts and his interpretation of stormy weather as magical. Upon his return to Scotland, he attended the North Berwick witch trials, where Agnes Sampson and John Fian were convicted of using witchcraft against James' ship. This fueled James' obsession with witches. He accused his cousin, Francis Stewart, of witchcraft and hunted down witches with royal commissions, personally supervising torture. In 1597, James wrote the Daemonologie, opposing witchcraft and inspiring Shakespeare's Macbeth. His witchcraft policies diverted suspicion from male homosociality to women, limiting their political influence. James' views on witchcraft became more skeptical over time, and he revoked standing commissions on witchcraft in the same year as his book's publication. ^[87][88]

Scottish Witch Pricker.

Devil’s Mark, Witch-pricking, and Witch-Prickers, Scotland, (1590-1688). The notion persisted that witches forged a pact with the Devil, and in doing so, received a distinctive mark on their bodies. This mark was believed to be impervious to pain and incapable of bleeding. The accused person’s body would be thoroughly examined by the authorities, often by women called “witch-prickers” who were tasked with identifying these marks. A witch-pricker (needle or bodkin) would be used to prick various areas of the body, and if the person did not react with pain, it was taken as evidence of their guilt as a witch. Calvinist communities in Geneva and Scotland were particularly zealous in this pursuit, possibly due to their strong emphasis on the diabolical aspect of witchcraft.” ^[89]

North Berwick Witch Trials, East Lothian, Scotland (1590). A series of infamous witch trials that had a significant impact on the region. These trials were one of the most notable episodes of witch persecution in Scottish history.

The trials were sparked by accusations of witchcraft and sorcery against several individuals, primarily women, in the town of North Berwick and its surrounding areas. The accused were believed to have conspired with the devil, engaged in satanic rituals, and caused harm to others through their supposed supernatural powers.

The trials gained momentum when King James VI of Scotland (later King James I of England) became personally involved and took a keen interest in the proceedings. He even wrote a book, "Daemonologie," which discussed the nature of witchcraft and provided a theological justification for the persecution of witches.

The trials resulted in numerous confessions obtained through torture, and many individuals were convicted and executed for their alleged involvement in witchcraft. The impact of the North Berwick Witch Trials extended beyond the immediate period, as they contributed to the overall atmosphere of fear and suspicion surrounding witchcraft in Scotland and influenced subsequent witch trials in the country.

These trials were a reflection of the prevailing beliefs and fears of the time, where witchcraft was seen as a grave threat to society. However, in the centuries that followed, attitudes towards witchcraft and the persecution of alleged witches changed, leading to a broader recognition of the unjust nature of such trials and the suffering inflicted upon innocent individuals. ^{[90][91][92][93][94]}

Newes from Scotland, King James VI of Scotland (1591). was a publication printed in 1591 by King James VI of Scotland, later King James I of England. It recounted and illustrated the account of three witches who allegedly attacked him. This publication served as a personal and influential account, shaping public opinion and strengthening the belief in witchcraft. It played a significant role in fueling the fear and paranoia surrounding witches during that time. ^[95][96][97]

Dæmonologie, James I, King of England (1597). a book exploring the topics of witchcraft, sorcery, and supernatural phenomena. It presents the king's personal beliefs and views on these subjects, discussing the existence of witches and providing guidance on identifying, prosecuting, and eliminating witchcraft. "Daemonologie" was an influential work in shaping the attitudes and policies towards witchcraft during the reign of James I. ^{[98][99][100]}

The Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597, Scotland (1597). a nationwide series of witch trials in Scotland from March to October. Approximately 400 people faced trial for witchcraft and diabolism, with an estimated 200 executed. It was the second of five major witch hunts in Scottish history. ^[101][102]

Discours des Sorciers (Discourse on Witchcraft), Henry Boguet, Franche-Comté region, France (1602). A French magistrate, involved in the witch trials of the Franche-Comté region. While Boguet's work was influential and widely read during his time, it is now seen as contributing to the perpetuation of witch-hunting practices and the unjust persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft. Boguet's writings and actions exemplify the prevalent attitudes and beliefs of the era, showcasing the profound impact of witchcraft fears and the subsequent witch trials on society. ^[103]

The Holy Bible, King James Version (1611). “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.” (Exodus 22:18), “A man also or woman that hath a familiar spirit, or that is a wizard, shall surely be put to death: they shall stone them with stones: their blood shall be upon them.” (Leviticus 20:27).

In 1611, the social impact of these specific verses from the King James Version of the Bible was significant. During that time, there was widespread belief in the existence of witches and the fear of witchcraft was prevalent. These verses were often interpreted literally and were used to justify the persecution and execution of individuals accused of practicing witchcraft.

The fear of witches and the enforcement of laws based on these biblical verses resulted in a period commonly known as the "witch-hunting era." Accusations of witchcraft were taken seriously, and trials were conducted to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused. Many individuals, primarily women, were falsely accused, leading to their imprisonment, torture, and execution.

The social impact of these verses, combined with the prevailing beliefs and fears of the time, fueled a climate of paranoia and suspicion. It created a societal environment in which people lived in fear of being accused of witchcraft and where witch trials were seen as a means to protect the community from perceived evil.

Over time, attitudes towards witchcraft and the interpretation of these verses have evolved. Today, in most societies, there is a recognition that the persecution of individuals based on accusations of witchcraft is unjust and inhumane. ^[104]

The Scottish Revolution (Wars of the Three Kingdoms), Scotland (1638-1651) A period of political and religious upheaval caused a shift in the approach to witch-hunting and the prosecution of alleged witches. Including, Diminishing Authority of Church Courts, Centralization of Power, Political and Religious Motivations and Renewed Interest After the Revolution:

The English Civil War (1642-1648). originated from disagreements between Parliament and King Charles I regarding law and authority in the kingdom. The parliamentary forces emerged victorious, fueled in part by the influence of more radical Puritan representatives. The turmoil and unrest during this period created an atmosphere conducive to intense witch hunts, notably exemplified by figures like Matthew Hopkins. ^[105]

Trial of Janet Barker and Margaret Lauder, Edinburgh, Scotland (1643). took place in Edinburgh in 1643. It was one of the many witchcraft trials that occurred during that period. Janet Barker and Margaret Lauder were accused of practicing witchcraft and engaging in activities associated with the devil.

The trial involved allegations of supernatural powers, involvement in satanic rituals, and causing harm to others through witchcraft. Like many witch trials of the time, confessions were often obtained through torture.

The trial reflected the prevailing belief in witchcraft and the fear surrounding it. It was part of a broader pattern of witch-hunting and persecution that occurred across Europe during that era.

While specific details of this particular trial may be limited, it is an example of the widespread fear and persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft during the 17th century. These trials had severe consequences for those accused, often resulting in imprisonment, torture, and execution. ^[106]

The Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1649-50, Lothian and Fife, Scotland (1649-1650). a significant series of trials, with the highest number of executions in a single year. It occurred during a period of economic, political, and religious unrest in Scotland. The radical Kirk party, seeking a "godly society," passed a new Witchcraft Act and encouraged local authorities to root out witches. The hunt primarily targeted the Lowlands, particularly Lothian and Fife, but also spilled over into northern England. Over 300 witches, mostly women of low social status, were executed, with ad hoc courts having higher execution rates. Trials were initiated by local ministers and their sessions, often leading to the naming of additional suspects. The Parliament and Committee of Estates later supervised the trials more closely. The use of pricking a Devil's mark, sometimes leading to torture, was notable in Scottish witchcraft trials. ^[107]

The Penston Witch Trials, East Lothian, Scotland (1649). A series of witch trials that took place in Penston, a village in East Lothian, Scotland. During this period, accusations of witchcraft were widespread, and many individuals, predominantly women, were targeted and accused of practicing witchcraft.

The exact details and outcomes of the Penston Witch Trials are not widely recorded or well-documented. However, it can be assumed that the trials followed a similar pattern to other witch trials of the time. Accusations of supernatural powers, association with the devil, and causing harm to others through witchcraft were commonly made against the accused.

Like other witch trials during that era, the Penston Witch Trials likely involved investigations, interrogations, and potentially the use of torture to extract confessions. Those accused of witchcraft faced severe consequences, including imprisonment, torture, and execution.

While specific information on the Penston Witch Trials may be limited, it is an example of the prevailing fear and persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft in Scotland during the 17th century. The trials were influenced by the broader belief in witchcraft and the efforts to combat what was perceived as a threat to society. ^[108]

The Scientific Agricultural Revolution (1650-1800). brought about significant advancements in farming and domestic husbandry through the application of scientific ideas. This led to a substantial increase in agricultural production, which played a crucial role in Western Civilization's ability to address and mitigate famine and hunger. As food shortages became less prevalent, fewer people attributed adverse weather conditions, crop failures, or animal illnesses to witchcraft or blamed witches for such misfortunes.

The Persecution of the Alloa Witches, Stirling, Scotland (1658). The trial of the Alloa witches began in Stirling on May 19, 1658. The presbyter Matthias Symson and minister George Bennett met with the apprehended individuals to seek confessions. Margaret Duchill was the first to go on trial among the 12 women accused of witchcraft from the urban parish, potentially including the adjacent rural area. One important aspect of the Scottish witchcraft trials was the reports of demonic sex. Women were asked about sex with the devil regularly, this appeared more of an interest of the authorities in deviant sex rather than in the witches' real lives ^[109]

The Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1661-62, Scotland (1661-1662). stands as a significant chapter in Scottish history. Spanning sixteen months from April 1661, it was a nationwide series of witch trials that shook the entire country. Over 660 individuals faced trials for witchcraft and diabolism during this period, with the exact number of executions, though unknown, believed to be substantial. The witch hunt initially took root in Midlothian and East Lothian, and its intensity led to the appointment of commissions to investigate witchcraft across Scotland, leaving no region untouched by the fervor of the trials. ^[110]

The Enlightenment (1687-1789). was an intellectual revolution that championed concepts like empirical reason, skepticism, humanitarianism, and progress within Western Civilization. These principles, when applied to the notions of witches and their alleged threat to society, played a significant role in bringing an end to the witch hunts.

During the Enlightenment, the lack of empirical evidence supporting the existence of witches undermined belief in their harmful powers. Additionally, the Enlightenment thinkers recognized that the use of torture to gather evidence or inflict punishment was inhumane and incompatible with rational principles. Finally, the Enlightenment emphasized the importance of progress and the elimination of superstitious beliefs like the belief in witches.

Collectively, these Enlightenment ideas contributed to the decline of witch hunts as society began to reject the unfounded fears and superstitions surrounding witchcraft. The intellectual and cultural shift towards reason, skepticism, humanitarianism, and progress helped pave the way for a more enlightened perspective on witchcraft and a movement away from the persecution of alleged witches. ^[111]

James Hutchison: Children, The Covenant, and Witchcraft, Paisley, Scotland (1697). Minister James Hutchison of Kilallan delivered a sermon at Paisley before the judges appointed by the Privy Council to preside over the trials of those accused of witchcraft. In this significant sermon, Hutchison put forth the belief that even children could be ensnared by the Devil, and he justified their prosecution and execution for the alleged crime of witchcraft. His sermon shed light on the prevailing attitudes of the time, where even the innocence of the young was not spared from suspicion and persecution during the fervor of the witch trials. ^[112]

Paisley Witches, Paisley, Scotland (1697). The infamous Paisley witches, also known as the Bargarran witches or the Renfrewshire witches, faced trial in Paisley, Scotland. Triggered by eleven-year-old Christian Shaw's torment, the accusations led to the conviction of seven individuals, including Catherine Campbell, a servant of Shaw's family. The accused were found guilty of bewitching Shaw and faced grave consequences. One committed suicide, while the remaining six were hanged and burned on June 10, 1697, marking the final mass execution for witchcraft in western Europe. “One account of the executions states that some of the condemned were still alive when their bodies were burned, and that the executioners borrowed a walking stick from an onlooker with which to push their victims' moving limbs back into the fire; its owner, Mark Canavan, refused to take it back after it had been in contact with witches.” Agnes Naismith cast a curse on the trial's attendees, which was believed to bring misfortune to Paisley for years. ^[113]

The Pittenweem Witches, Fife, Scotland (1704). A group of five Scottish women accused of witchcraft in the village of Pittenweem in 1704. They were imprisoned, tortured, and beaten, leading to the death of one of them, Janet Cornfoot, who was killed by a lynch mob. The murder was investigated, but no suspects were prosecuted. Two of the accused women were imprisoned again in 1708–1709 but were eventually released and pardoned. Another accused woman, Janet Horseburgh, sued the bailies responsible for her imprisonment and received an apology and monetary compensation. The events surrounding the Pittenweem witches were considered one of the last significant instances of witch persecution in Fife. ^{[114][115][116]}

Death penalty for witchcraft abolished in Prussia, Frederick II Hohenzollern, Prussia (1721). The King of Prussia, known for his progressive policies, revised the legal codes in his kingdom, putting an end to witch hunting. Frederick II's actions reflected his commitment to Enlightenment ideals and a more rational and humane approach to justice. ^[117]

Scottish Witchcraft Act repealed (1736). The Scottish Witchcraft Act of 1735 was indeed repealed in 1736. The Act had been introduced in an attempt to curb the persecution and execution of individuals accused of witchcraft in Scotland. Prior to its repeal, Scotland had a long history of witch trials and harsh punishments for those accused.

The Act of 1735 marked a significant shift in attitudes towards witchcraft and the recognition that the persecution of alleged witches was unjust. The repeal of the Act was a progressive step that acknowledged the need for reform in the legal treatment of witchcraft accusations.

By repealing the Witchcraft Act, Scotland moved away from the belief in supernatural witchcraft and shifted towards a more rational and skeptical approach. This repeal contributed to the decline of witch trials and the eventual end of legal persecution based on accusations of witchcraft in Scotland.

It is important to note that the repeal of the Witchcraft Act did not erase the historical impact of the witch trials or the suffering endured by those falsely accused. However, it represented a significant milestone in Scotland's legal history and the changing attitudes towards witchcraft. ^[118][119]

Imperial Habsburg Law of 1766, Maria Theresa Habsburg, Austria (1766)). The Archduchess of Austria an "enlightened despot" implemented legal reforms that ended witch hunting in her territories, reflecting her progressive approach to governance. ^[120]

Crime of witchcraft abolished in France (1791). The French Revolutionary marked the political transformation of France from an absolute monarchy to a more constitutional and representative government. Influenced by Enlightenment ideals, the revolution emphasized the importance of reason and rationality. The crime of witchcraft would not be finally abolished in revolutionary France...until 1791." ^[121]

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2. ↑ New Revised Standard Version Bible, Online edition, orémus Bible Browser, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America, (1989), 1 Samuel 28:3–25.
3. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), p. 100.
4. ↑ Goodare, Julian et al. Survey of Scottish Witchcraft, Revised by Brewster, Kaye. Edinburgh: The University of Edinburgh (2003), http://www.shca.ed.ac.uk/Research/witches//.
5. ↑ MacKay, Christopher S., The Hammer of Witches; A Complete Translation of the Malleus Maleficarum, Kindle edition, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City: Cambridge University Press (2009), p. 19.
6. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 17-22.
7. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 103, 348–3499, 375–376.
8. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 458-528.
9. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 102-104.
10. ↑ Willumsen, Liv Helene. The voices of women in witchcraft trials: Northern Europe. Kindle edition. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group (2022), p. 139.
11. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 73.
12. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 191-192.
13. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), ” p. 133. citing, “The primary concern of the literature on legal procedures in witchcraft cases was the use of judicial torture. This procedure began to be introduced into the ecclesiastical and secular courts of most European countries in the thirteenth century, and in some but not all jurisdictions it was routinely used to interrogate witches. The purpose of torture was to obtain confessions when the testimony of eye-witnesses could not be produced. Its use was regulated by a number of rules regarding the intensity and duration of the torture, but in their eagerness to obtain convictions many judicial officials often violated those rules on the grounds that witchcraft was an exceptional crime that had to be prosecuted at all costs.”
14. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 353-360.
15. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), ” p. 191. citing, “Between 1400 and 1750 perhaps as many as 100,000 persons were tried for the crime of witchcraft in Europe and colonial North America. Approximately half of those alleged witches were executed, many by burning at the stake. Most of the trials, especially those after 1580, when the most intense period of witch-hunting began, took place in the secular courts, which administered justice in kingdoms, principalities, counties, and towns. Ecclesiastical courts had taken a major role in witch-hunting during the fifteenth century, and they continued to conduct some prosecutions after that time, but many of those trials were for practicing lesser forms of magic and superstition. Cases involving serious maleficia, such as causing the illness or death of a person, were usually held in the secular courts, which had a more clearly defined jurisdiction and greater procedural latitude."
16. ↑ Wilhelm, Joseph. "Heresy." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton Company (1910), citing, “The burning of heretics was first decreed in the eleventh century. The Synod of Verona (1184) imposed on bishops the duty to search out the heretics in their dioceses and to hand them over to the secular power. Other synods, and the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) under Pope Innocent III, repeated and enforced this decree, especially the Synod of Toulouse (1229), which established inquisitors in every parish (one priest and two laymen). Everyone was bound to denounce heretics, the names of the witnesses were kept secret; after 1243, when Innocent IV sanctioned the laws of Emperor Frederick II and of Louis IX against heretics, torture was applied in trials; the guilty persons were delivered up to the civil authorities and actually burnt at the stake.” Heresy.
17. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 376.
18. ↑ Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Capital Punishment, (2023), Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Capital Punishment/
19. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 498-502.
20. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 5-27.
21. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 80-83.
22. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 31-32.
23. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 35–37.
24. ↑ Hutton, Ronald. The Witch: A History of Fear from Ancient Times to the Present. Kindle edition. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, (2017). p. 270.
25. ↑ ^{25.0 25.1 25.2} Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 81.
26. ↑ Weber, Nicholas. Cathari, The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, (1908). http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03435a.htm
27. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe, Fourth edition, Kindle edition, New York: Routledge (2016). pps. 38-39
28. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 81-83.
29. ↑ Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Albigenses, (2023), Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Albigenses.
30. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 47-48, archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/112/mode/1up?view=theater#page/47/mode/1up/search/Abolendam. Ad Abolendam.
31. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 57-58, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/57/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Episcopal.
32. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 48-49, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/48/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Vergentis.
33. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 50-51, 195, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/50/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Albigensian.
34. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 50, 78, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/50/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Lateran.
35. ↑ Leclercq, Henri. "Fourth Lateran Council (1215)." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. New York: Robert Appleton Company, (1910), http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm.
36. ↑ Papal Encyclicals Online; guide to online Papal and other official documents of the Catholic Church, (2023), https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum12-2.htm
37. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/mode/1up?view=theater&q=inquisition.
38. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 83.
39. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 55,57, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/57/mode/1up?view=theater&q=Marburg.
40. ↑ Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. Konrad von Marburg. Encyclopedia Britannica, July 26, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Konrad-von-Marburg.
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42. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016), p. 87.
43. ↑ Barber, Malcolm, The Trial of the Templars, Second edition. Kindle edition, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City: Cambridge University Press (2006)
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45. ↑ Hill, Derek. Inquisition in the Fourteenth Century: The Manuals of Bernard Gui and Nicholas Eymerich. NED-New edition. Boydell & Brewer, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781787444249
46. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 85.
47. ↑ Walsh, William Thomas, Characters of the Inquisition, Rockford, IL: Tan Books (1987), pps. 50-88, https://archive.org/details/charactersofinqu0000wals_r6m9/page/50/mode/1up?q=GUI.
48. ↑ Bailey, Michael, Golden, Richard M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: The Western Tradition, JOHN XXII, POPE (RULED 1316-1334, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, LLC (2006), pps. 597-598, https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/handle/20.500.12876/38641.
49. ↑ Green, David. The Hundred Years War: A People's History, 3rd Edition, Kindle Edition, New Haven: Yale University Press (2014).
50. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 83.
51. ↑ Fagan, Bryan, The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History 1300-1850, New York: Hachette Book Group (2000), p. 130, citing, “As climatic conditions deteriorated, a lethal mix of misfortunes descended on a growing European population. Crops failed and cattle perished by diseases caused by abnormal weather. Famine followed famine bringing epidemics in their train, bread riots and general disorder brought fear and distrust. Witchcraft accusations soared, as people accused their neighbors of fabricating bad weather. Lutheran orthodoxy called the cold and deep snowfall on Leipzig in 1562 a sign of God’s wrath at human sin, but the church’s bulwark against accusations of witchcraft began to crumble when climatic shifts caused poor harvests, food dearths, and cattle diseases.”
52. ↑ Walsh, William Thomas, Characters of the Inquisition, Rockford, IL: Tan Books (1987), pps. 89-130, https://archive.org/details/charactersofinqu0000wals_r6m9/page/89/mode/1up?q=Eymeric
53. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 40, 66.
54. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.)The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 59.
55. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 77.
56. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 40.
57. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 102-103.
58. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 99.
59. ↑ ^{59.0 59.1} Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 54-58.
60. ↑ ^{60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3} Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 103.
61. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 334.
62. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe, Fourth edition, Kindle edition, New York: Routledge (2016). pps. 87-88
63. ↑ ^{63.0 63.1} Institoris, Heinrich (Heinrich Kramer), 1430-1505. Malleus maleficarum. Original published in 1487. London:Pushkin Press (1948), p. xiv., https://archive.org/details/b31349717/page/n16/mode/1up?q=Summis+desiderantes+affectibus%2C..
64. ↑ Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe; Studies in Culture and Belief, Barry, Jonathan (ed.), Hester, Marianne (ed.), Roberts, Gareth (ed.), Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press (1996), p. 82.
65. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 74.
66. ↑ Peters, Edward. The Inquisition: A History. New York: Free Press (1988), pps. 95-96, https://archive.org/details/inquisition00pete/page/95/mode/1up?view=theater&q=sollicitudines, citing, “Inter sollicitudines prohibited the publication of books that contained doctrinal error, attacks on the Christian faith, or defamation of individuals.”
67. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), p. 212.
68. ↑ Institoris, Heinrich (Heinrich Kramer), 1430-1505. Malleus maleficarum. Original published in 1487. London:Pushkin Press (1948), https://archive.org/details/b31349717/page/n7/mode/1up.
69. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), pp. 44-48.
70. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 109-112.
71. ↑ MacKay, Christopher S. The Hammer of Witches; A Complete Translation of the Malleus Maleficarum. Kindle edition. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City, UK: Cambridge University Press (2009).
72. ↑ Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. Italian Wars. Encyclopedia Britannica (2020), https://www.britannica.com/event/Italian-Wars.
73. ↑ The Appearance of Syphilis in the 1490s. Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery. . Encyclopedia.com (2023), https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/appearance-syphilis-1490s.
74. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pp. 280-283.
75. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), pps. 124-125, 185-186, 190-192.
76. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 233, citing, “The Habsburgs wished to suppress all religious dissent in the Netherlands. In the 1520s Charles V introduced an ecclesiastical court modelled on the Spanish Inquisition. Provincial and municipal administrators identified this new institution as just another instrument of centralization.”
77. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 302.
78. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 288, citing, “In 1542 Henry VIII introduced the first Witchcraft Act, part of a legislative programme to establish the Tudor state. Death was prescribed for conjuring spirits, attempting to hurt or kill, finding treasure, and provoking love.”
79. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 252, citing, “With the bull Licet ab initio (It is Allowed from the Beginning) promulgated in 1542, Pope Paul III (r. 1534–1549) instituted the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition, known as the Roman Inquisition. Unlike its medieval predecessors, the Roman Inquisition was an organ of the Curia, and was presided over by the pope.”
80. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The Scottish Witchcraft Act. Church History 74, no. 1 (2005): 39–67. The Scottish Witchcraft Act.
81. ↑ American Society of Church History. The Scottish Witchcraft Act [of 1563]. Church History , Volume 74 , Issue 1 , March 2005 , pp. 39 - 67, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009640700109655.
82. ↑ Witchcraft and Belief in Early Modern Scotland, Belief in Early Modern Scotland, Goodare, Julian (ed.), Martin, Lauren (ed.), Miller, Joyce (ed.), New York: Palgrave MacMillan (2008). p. 71.
83. ↑ Tynedale, William; Whittingham, William. Geneva Bible. Originally published in 1534, Geneva. Scotland (1579), http://www.genevabible.org/Geneva.html.
84. ↑ 1599 Geneva Bible, Leviticus 20:27 GNV, Bible Gateway (online). (2023). https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2B20%3A27&version=GNV.
85. ↑ Bodin, Jean. De la démonomanie des sorciers (On the Demon-Mania of Witches). Originally published in France, 1580. Translated by Randy A. Scott. Toronto: Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, (1995). https://ia803003.us.archive.org/12/items/onthedemonmaniaofwitchesjeanbodin1580/On%20the%20Demon-Mania%20of%20Witches%2C%20Jean%20Bodin%20%281580%29.pdf.
86. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 146.
87. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pps. 85, 160, 161, 231, 239–40, 242.
88. ↑ Normand, Lawrence; Roberts, Gareth. Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland: James VI's Demonology and the North Berwick Witches (Exeter Studies in History). Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press. (2000).
89. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe, Fourth edition, Kindle edition, New York: Routledge (2016). p. 47.
90. ↑ Witchcraft in Early Modern Scotland: James' VI's Demonology and the North Berwick Witches (Exeter Studies in History), Normand, Lawrence (ed.). Roberts, Gareth (ed.), Liverpool: Liverpool University Press (2000).
91. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 412.
92. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), pp. 7, 9, 46, 58, 62, 107-108, 115, 170, 188, 193.
93. ↑ Witchcraft and Belief in Early Modern Scotland, Belief in Early Modern Scotland, Goodare, Julian (ed.), Martin, Lauren (ed.), Miller, Joyce (ed.), New York: Palgrave MacMillan (2008). p. 5, 14, 17, 29, 34, 72-74, 75, 87, 111, 151, 158.
94. ↑ Yeoman, L. A., North Berwick witches. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press (2004), North Berwick witches
95. ↑ British Library. “Witchcraft Pamphlet: News from Scotland, 1591.” Accessed July 13, 2023. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/witchcraft-pamphlet-news-from-scotland-1591.
96. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 286.
97. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), pps. 138, 188.
98. ↑ James I, King of England, 1566-1625, Dæmonologie, London: John Lane; New York: E. P. Dutton, (1924), https://archive.org/details/kingjamesfirstdm00jame/page/29/mode/1up.
99. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pps. 287-288.
100. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, The Scottish witchcraft panic of 1597, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), p. 51
101. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, The Scottish witchcraft panic of 1597, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), pps. 51-72.
102. ↑ “Witches and Witchcraft in Aberdeen” Aberdeen City Council, Aberdeen, Scotland: Marischal College (2023), https://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/services/libraries-and-archives/aberdeen-city-and-aberdeenshire-archives/witches-and-witchcraft-aberdeen.
103. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 83-87.
104. ↑ James I, King of England and Ireland (James VI, King of Scotland). The Holy Bible… Original published in 1611 in England. Oxford, England: T. Wright and W. Gill, (1769), https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James).
105. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). p. 305.
106. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 269-271.
107. ↑ Goodare, J., The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Witch-hunting and the Scottish state, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002).
108. ↑ The Penston Witch Trials of 1649, managed by Amy Gilpin
109. ↑ Fergusson, R. Menzies. The Witches of Alloa. The Scottish Historical Review 4, no. 13 (1906): 40–48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25517800..
110. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1661-1662, Journal of British Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Autumn, 1980), pp. 90-108, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The North American Conference on British Studies (1980), https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/24280/Levack_BrianP_1980.pdf;jsessionid=77DC6218BDFEC30974662F432CD16BCE?sequence=1 (Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/175544)..
111. ↑ Goodare, Julian. The European Witch-Hunt. Kindle edition. London and New York: Routledge, (2016). pps. 329, 346, 350, 364-365 .
112. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pp. 128-132.
113. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 335-342.
114. ↑ Ibrahim, Alia. Murder, Malice and Misogyny – The Pittenweem Witch Hunt. Edinburgh: Historic Environment Scotland (Larainneachd Eachdraidheil Alba) (2023), https://blog.historicenvironment.scot/2023/03/pittenweem-witch-hunt/.
115. ↑ Goodare, Julian, The Scottish Witch-Hunt in Context, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), p. 43-44, 175, 179, 180-181, 202-203, 215, citing, “The last cases of suspected witchcraft in Fife contain fascinating references to the Devil.”
116. ↑ A true and full relation of the witches at Pittenweem [&c.]. United Kingdom: n.p., 1704., Pittenweem
117. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 434, citing, “In 1721 Prussia abolished the death penalty in all witchcraft trials.”
118. ↑ The Witchcraft Act and its Impact in Scotland, 1563-1736, https://blog.historicenvironment.scot/2022/06/the-witchcraft-act-and-its-impact-in-scotland/
119. ↑ Levack, Brian P., The Witchcraft Sourcebook. Second Edition. Kindle Edition. London and New York: Routledge (2015), pps. 188-189.
120. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 433, citing, “the imperial Habsburg law of 1766, which was titled ‘An Article on Sorcery, Witchcraft, Divination, and Similar Activities’. This piece of legislation, which was part of Maria Theresa’s reform of criminal law, exhibited a fundamental scepticism regarding the reality of all magical phenomena.”
121. ↑ Levack, Brian P. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America. Kindle edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press (2013), p. 227.